Objective: The use of smaller dishware as a way of reducing food consumption has intuitive appeal and is recommended to the general public. Recent experimental studies have failed to find an effect of plate size on food intake, although the methods used across studies have varied. The aim of the present study was to examine the effect that bowl size had on snack food consumption in a 'typical' snacking context (snacking while watching television). Design: Between-subjects. Setting: Laboratory experiment. Subjects: Sixty-one adult participants served themselves and ate popcorn while watching television. Participants were randomly assigned to serve themselves with and eat from either a small or a large bowl. Results: The use of a smaller bowl size did not reduce food consumption. Unexpectedly, participants in the small bowl condition tended to consume more popcorn (34·0 g) than participants in the large bowl condition (24·9 g; 37 % increase, d = 0·5), although the statistical significance of this difference depended on whether analyses were adjusted to account for participant characteristics (e.g. gender) associated with food intake (P = 0·02) or not (P = 0·07). Conclusions: Counter to widely held belief, the use of a smaller bowl did not reduce snack food intake. Public health recommendations advising the use of smaller dishware to reduce food consumption are premature, as this strategy may not be effective.
ObjectivesOur objective was to examine the kilocalorie (kcal) content of starters, sides and desserts served in major UK restaurant chains, comparing the kcal content of these dishes in fast-food and full-service restaurants.DesignObservational study.SettingMenu and nutritional information provided online by major UK restaurant chains.MethodDuring October to November 2018, we accessed websites of restaurant chains with 50 or more outlets in the UK. Menu items that constituted starters, sides or desserts were identified and their kcal content was extracted. Accompanying beverages were not included. We used multilevel modelling to examine whether mean kcal content of dishes differed in fast-food versus full-service restaurants.Main outcome measuresThe mean kcal content of dishes and the proportion of dishes exceeding public health recommendations for energy content in a main meal (>600 kcal).ResultsA total of 1009 dishes (212 starters, 318 sides and 479 desserts) from 27 restaurant chains (21 full-service, 6 fast-food) were included. The mean kcal content of eligible dishes was 488.0 (SE=15.6) for starters, 397.5 (SE=14.9) for sides and 430.6 (SE=11.5) for desserts. The percentage of dishes exceeding 600 kcal was 26.4% for starters, 21.7% for sides and 20.5% for desserts. Compared with fast-food chains, desserts offered at full-service restaurants were on average more calorific and were significantly more likely to exceed 600 kcal.ConclusionsThe average energy content of sides, starters and desserts sold in major UK restaurants is high. One in four starters and one in five sides and desserts in UK chain restaurants exceed the recommended energy intake for an entire meal.
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