Previous empirical research on tolerance suffers from a number of shortcomings, the most serious being the conceptual and operational conflation of (in)tolerance and prejudice. We design research to remedy this. First, we contribute to the literature by advancing research that distinguishes analytically between the two phenomena. We conceptualize tolerance as a value orientation towards difference. This definition-which is abstract and does not capture attitudes towards specific out-groups, ideas, or behaviors-allows for the analysis of tolerance within and between societies. Second, we improve the measurement of tolerance by developing survey items that are consistent with this conceptualization. We administer two surveys, one national (Sweden) and one cross-national (Australia, Denmark, Great Britain, Sweden, and the United States). Results from structural equation models show that tolerance is best understood as a three-dimensional concept, which includes acceptance of, respect for, and appreciation of difference. Analyses show that measures of tolerance have metric invariance across countries, and additional tests demonstrate convergent and discriminant validity. We also assess tolerance's relationship to prejudice and find that only an appreciation of difference has the potential to reduce prejudice. We conclude that it is not only possible to measure tolerance in a way that is distinct from prejudice but also necessary if we are to understand the causes and consequences of tolerance.

The Gender-Equality-Personality Paradox (GEPP) is the finding that gender differences in personality are at their largest in the most gender equal countries. Previous known studies have not examined this relationship over time. Examining this linkage is crucial to our understanding of gender differences and personality development. In the present study, we contrast evolutionary perspectives predicting a gender divergence in personality due to progression in gender equality against biosocial perspectives predicting convergence. Using data from all eight rounds of the European Social Survey (n = 235,339) across 32 European countries, we report three findings. First, in accordance with the evolutionary perspective, country-level gender equality is positively associated with gender differences in basic human values. Second, in accordance with the biosocial perspective, we find evidence supporting gender convergence in basic human values. Third, contradicting both evolutionary and biosocial assumptions, we find no evidence that gender equality causes gender differences in values. We argue that there is a need to explore alternative explanations to the observed cross-sectional association between gender equality and personality differences, as well as gender convergence in personality over time.

We estimate the correlation between life satisfaction and affective (emotional) well-being-two conceptually distinct dimensions of subjective well-being. We propose a simple model that distinguishes between a stable and a transitory component of affective well-being, and which also accounts for measurement error in self-reports of both variables, including current mood-bias effects on life satisfaction judgments. The model is estimated using momentarily measured well-being data, from an experience sampling survey that we conducted on a population sample of Swedes aged 18-50 (n = 252). Our main estimates of the correlation between life satisfaction and long-run affective well-being range between 0.78 and 0.91, indicating a stronger convergence between these variables than many previous studies that do not account for measurement issues.

Previous research has shown that the unemployed has lower life satisfaction than the employed but that their emotional well-being may not differ. The aim is to investigate the role of mediators with bearings on these differences between the employed and unemployed in emotional well-being compared to life satisfaction. Participants were 3,463 employed and 452 unemployed living in five Western countries. They answered questions in an online survey. The results showed that the employed had both higher life satisfaction and emotional well-being. Mediation analysis replicated previous results in that the relationship between unemployment and life satisfaction was mediated by financial satisfaction. The relationship with emotional well-being was mediated by satisfaction with time use which was higher for the employed than the unemployed. Financial satisfaction was also a mediator of the relationship with emotional well-being, both directly and through satisfaction with time use. Although the unemployed felt lower time pressure than the employed, this factor was not a strong mediator of the relationship with emotional well-being, neither directly nor through satisfaction with time use. A possible explanation for the differences in the results for emotional well-being is that a negative mood is less associated with work than found in previous research.

Syftet med denna studie är att öka kunskapen om människors oro över coronapandemin i Sverige. Vi använder enkätdata (n=3 040) för att studera 1) hur utbredd oron är, 2) vad den mer konkret består i, 3) hur den varierar mellan olika demografiska och socioekonomiska grupper, 4) huruvida oron kan förklaras av faktorer som personlighet, livsåskådning, tillit och riskuppfattningar, samt 5) vilka konsekvenser oron får för människors sociala kontakter, livskvalitet, beteenden och åsikter om samhällets åtgärder för att minska smittspridningen. Resultaten visar att det finns en utbredd oro över coronapandemin i Sverige och att denna främst bottnar i en oro för den egna eller familjemedlemmars hälsa. Dessutom varierar oron mellan grupper: framför allt äldre personer men även kvinnor och låginkomsttagare uppvisar jämförelsevis en högre grad av oro. Det finns ett flertal faktorer som förklarar den upplevda oron, men särskilt riskuppfattningar förklarar en stor andel av variationen mellan individer samt skillnader mellan olika grupper. De som oroar sig mer uppger också att de i större utsträckning följer myndigheternas rekommendationer och har minskat sina sociala aktiviteter samt upplever en försämrad livskvalitet under coronapandemin.