Vector-borne emerging and re-emerging diseases pose considerable public health problem worldwide. Some of these diseases are emerging and/or re-emerging at increasing rates and appeared in new regions in the past two decades. Studies emphasized that the interactions among pathogens, hosts, and the environment play a key role for the emergence or re-emergence of these diseases. Furthermore, social and demographic factors such as human population growth, urbanization, globalization, trade exchange and travel and close interactions with livestock have significantly been linked with the emergence and/or re-emergence of vector-borne diseases. Other studies emphasize the ongoing evolution of pathogens, proliferation of reservoir populations, and antimicrobial drug use to be the principal exacerbating forces for emergence and re-emergence of vector-borne infectious diseases. Still other studies equivocally claim that climate change has been associated with appearance and resurgence of vector-borne infectious diseases. Despite the fact that many important emerging and re-emerging vector-borne infectious diseases are becoming better controlled, our success in stopping the many new appearing and resurging vector-borne infectious diseases that may happen in the future seems to be uncertain. Hence, this paper reviews and synthesizes the existing literature to explore global patterns of emerging and re-emerging vector-borne infections and the challenges for their control. It also attempts to give insights to the epidemiological profile of major vector-borne diseases including Zika fever, dengue, West Nile fever, Crimean-Congo hemorrhagic fever, Chikungunya, Yellow fever, and Rift Valley fever.
Background Mycobacterium colombiense is an acid-fast, non-motile, rod-shaped mycobacterium confirmed to cause respiratory disease and disseminated infection in immune-compromised patients, and lymphadenopathy in immune-competent children. It has virulence mechanisms that allow them to adapt, survive, replicate, and produce diseases in the host. To tackle the diseases caused by M. colombiense, understanding of the regulation mechanisms of its genes is important. This paper, therefore, analyzes transcription start sites, promoter regions, motifs, transcription factors, and CpG islands in TetR family transcriptional regulatory (TFTR) genes of M. colombiense CECT 3035 using neural network promoter prediction, MEME, TOMTOM algorithms, and evolutionary analysis with the help of MEGA-X. Results The analysis of 22 protein coding TFTR genes of M. colombiense CECT 3035 showed that 86.36% and 13.64% of the gene sequences had one and two TSSs, respectively. Using MEME, we identified five motifs (MTF1, MTF2, MTF3, MTF4, and MTF5) and MTF1 was revealed as the common promoter motif for 100% TFTR genes of M. colombiense CECT 3035 which may serve as binding site for transcription factors that shared a minimum homology of 95.45%. MTF1 was compared to the registered prokaryotic motifs and found to match with 15 of them. MTF1 serves as the binding site mainly for AraC, LexA, and Bacterial histone-like protein families. Other protein families such as MATP, RR, σ-70 factor, TetR, LytTR, LuxR, and NAP also appear to be the binding candidates for MTF1. These families are known to have functions in virulence mechanisms, metabolism, quorum sensing, cell division, and antibiotic resistance. Furthermore, it was found that TFTR genes of M. colombiense CECT 3035 have many CpG islands with several fragments in their CpG islands. Molecular evolutionary genetic analysis showed close relationship among the genes. Conclusion We believe these findings will provide a better understanding of the regulation of TFTR genes in M. colombiense CECT 3035 involved in vital processes such as cell division, pathogenesis, and drug resistance and are likely to provide insights for drug development important to tackle the diseases caused by this mycobacterium. We believe this is the first report of in silico analyses of the transcriptional regulation of M. colombiense TFTR genes.
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