This article discusses ‘unconventional’ monetary policy after the 2008 crisis. The focus is the original theoretical basis for such policy and possible Keynesian readings and criticisms. Drawing inspiration mainly from Keynes (1930; 1936) and Minsky (1975), the paper seeks to explain why ultra-low/negative interest rates neither caused ‘rentiers’ to die, nor achieved full employment. The main hypothesis goes in the direction pointed to by Keynes: the problem is the low marginal efficiency of capital, the liquidity trap, and the lack of active government fiscal policy, which should be used in conjunction with monetary policy that maintains low long-term interest rates in order to spur investment. Monetary policy and very low/negative interest rates seem insufficient to overcome low growth. They are also incapable, at least in the short term, of promoting euthanasia of the rentiers as current monetary policy allows financial institutions to benefit from the capital gains it spurs.
Resumo O cenário de desaceleração do crescimento econômico tem suscitado discussões a respeito do crescente vazamento de demanda da economia brasileira para o exterior, uma vez que haveria um descompasso entre produção industrial e demanda doméstica. Ao considerar as transformações na relação entre produção e comércio internacional, este artigo extrapola os indicadores tradicionalmente utilizados para mensurar a demanda doméstica por bens industriais, avançando na caracterização do vazamento de demanda. A partir de matrizes insumo-produto, propõe-se uma forma complementar de análise dos coeficientes de penetração das importações e insumos importados. Os estímulos gerados pelo aumento na importação (e produção) de um setor específico não se propagaram pela matriz produtiva brasileira com mais força, apontando para o desadensamento da matriz produtiva. Ao mesmo tempo, o multiplicador de vazamento de demanda aponta para a deterioração da capacidade produtiva doméstica acomodar acréscimos de demanda. Dessa forma, o estudo retrata o esgarçamento do tecido industrial brasileiro.
Resumo: Este artigo analisa os encadeamentos produtivos da indústria doméstica frente aos estímulos de demanda vis-à-vis o vazamento de demanda para o exterior. A partir das matrizes insumo-produto, alguns indicadores foram utilizados: índices de Rasmussen-Hirschman; índices de campo de influência; multiplicadores de produção e de importação, que identificam, respectivamente, a interdependência entre cada setor e os demais da economia; os principais elos de ligação do processo produtivo; e os efeitos diretos e indiretos do estímulo de demanda de determinado setor, bem como seu vazamento para o exterior. Para averiguar se a estrutura de oferta doméstica foi capaz de assegurar que estímulos de demanda fossem traduzidos em produção doméstica, criamos um indicador de vazamento de demanda setorial. A análise corrobora a hipótese de que a indústria permanece como importante força motriz de crescimento econômico. No entanto, os resultados sugerem uma tendência de desadensamento da estrutura produtiva, que compromete a capacidade potencial do setor industrial de gerar dinamismo econômico.Palavras-chave: encadeamento produtivo; vazamento de demanda; matriz insumo-produto.
The evaluation of money endogeneity reveals the complex arrangements that form a banking structure and its ability to create money through credit. In this regard, the key features of the Post-Keynesian structuralist approach of money supply are: (i) money is mostly created in the credit market; and (ii) monetary authorities impose some limits to credit creation, however, they do not entirely determine its process. Hereof, both money demand and liquidity preference of agents (banks, firms and consumers) are the underlying forces that sustain these two attributes. The thesis investigates what has determined credit money supply in Brazil and how monetary policy has bounded this process after the adoption of the Inflation Targeting Regime in 1999. We, first, outline the intrinsic characteristics of money supply in a monetary economy of production by addressing the Post-Keynesian structuralist theory on the subject. Thereafter, we focus on the current dominant academic thinking that guides the formulation of monetary policies for numerous Central Banks by almost three decades, i.e. the New Consensus in Macroeconomics (NCM), and assess its divergences to the Post-Keynesian approach. Even though the global financial crisis of 2007-2009 has raised questions about the scientific foundation of the NCM policy rules, it has not shattered the essence of the pre-crisis theoretical elements, which still claims that the Taylor rule and the use of an inflation target should prevail since any alterations on monetary variables is at the best scenario, ephemeral. Afterwards, even though the Brazilian Central Bank has been constantly updating its models, its background lies on the ultimate ability the monetary authority has to control the monetary base. However, we find evidences, both in empirical analyses and in econometric models, that there are other variables which affect the credit supply decision of banks in Brazil: the long-run expectations of interest rates, influenced by the policy short-term interest rate by the provoked alterations on the yield curve of banks; and credit demand, which influences banks decisions to value their wealth and, in consequence, to increase or not the credit supply. Therefore, credit supply in Brazil is endogenously determinedas expected by the Post-Keynesian theoryby the liquidity preference of banks and the demand for funds, being, thus, bounded by the monetary policy. LIST OF GRAPHSGraph 1. Reserve Requirements by type
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