The RNA world concept1 is one of the most fundamental pillars of the origin of life theory2–4. It predicts that life evolved from increasingly complex self-replicating RNA molecules1,2,4. The question of how this RNA world then advanced to the next stage, in which proteins became the catalysts of life and RNA reduced its function predominantly to information storage, is one of the most mysterious chicken-and-egg conundrums in evolution3–5. Here we show that non-canonical RNA bases, which are found today in transfer and ribosomal RNAs6,7, and which are considered to be relics of the RNA world8–12, are able to establish peptide synthesis directly on RNA. The discovered chemistry creates complex peptide-decorated RNA chimeric molecules, which suggests the early existence of an RNA–peptide world13 from which ribosomal peptide synthesis14 may have emerged15,16. The ability to grow peptides on RNA with the help of non-canonical vestige nucleosides offers the possibility of an early co-evolution of covalently connected RNAs and peptides13,17,18, which then could have dissociated at a higher level of sophistication to create the dualistic nucleic acid–protein world that is the hallmark of all life on Earth.
The question of how RNA, as the principal carrier of genetic information evolved is fundamentally important for our understanding of the origin of life. The RNA molecule is far too complex to have formed in one evolutionary step, suggesting that ancestral proto-RNAs (first ancestor of RNA) may have existed, which evolved over time into the RNA of today. Here we show that isoxazole nucleosides, which are quickly formed from hydroxylamine, cyanoacetylene, urea and ribose, are plausible precursors for RNA. The isoxazole nucleoside can rearrange within an RNA-strand to give cytidine, which leads to an increase of pairing stability. If the proto-RNA contains a canonical seed-nucleoside with defined stereochemistry, the seed-nucleoside can control the configuration of the anomeric center that forms during the in-RNA transformation. The results demonstrate that RNA could have emerged from evolutionarily primitive precursor isoxazole ribosides after strand formation.
Die Frage, wie sich die RNA als ein Träger der genetischen Information entwickelt hat, ist von grundlegender Bedeutung für unser Verständnis des Ursprungs des Lebens. Das RNA-Molekül ist viel zu komplex, als das es in einem einzigen Evolutionsschritt hat entstehen können, was darauf hindeutet, dass es Proto-RNAs (erste Vorläufer der RNA) gegeben haben könnte, die sich im Laufe der Zeit zu der heutigen RNA entwickelt haben. Hier zeigen wir, dass Isoxazol-Nukleoside, die aus Hydroxylamin, Cyanoacetylen, Harnstoff und Ribose gebildet werden, plausible Vorläufer für RNA sind. Das Isoxazol-Nukleosid kann sich innerhalb eines RNA-Strangs zu Cytidin umlagern, was zu einer Erhöhung der Paarungsstabilität führt. Wenn die Proto-RNA ein kanonisches seed-Nukleosid mit definierter Stereochemie enthält, kann das seed-Nukleosid die Konfiguration des anomeren Zentrums kontrollieren, das sich, während der in-RNA-Umwandlung bildet. Die Ergebnisse zeigen, dass sich die RNA nach der Strangbildung aus evolutionär primitiven Vorläufern wie Isoxazol-Ribosiden entwickelt haben könnte.
We propose a secure computation solution for blockchain networks. The correctness of computation is verifiable even under malicious majority condition using information-theoretic Message Authentication Code (MAC), and the privacy is preserved using Secret-Sharing. With state-ofthe-art multiparty computation protocol and a layer2 solution, our privacy-preserving computation guarantees data security on blockchain, cryptographically, while reducing the heavy-lifting computation job to a few nodes. This breakthrough has several implications on the future of decentralized networks. First, secure computation can be used to support Private Smart Contracts, where consensus is reached without exposing the information in the public contract. Second, it enables data to be shared and used in trustless network, without disclosing the raw data during data-at-use, where data ownership and data usage is safely separated. Last but not least, computation and verification processes are separated, which can be perceived as computational sharding, this effectively makes the transaction processing speed linear to the number of participating nodes.Our objective is to deploy our secure computation network as an layer2 solution to any blockchain system. Smart Contracts[41] will be used as bridge to link the blockchain and computation networks. Additionally, they will be used as verifier to ensure that outsourced computation is completed correctly. In order to achieve this, we first develop a general MPC network with advanced features, such as: 1) Secure Computation, 2) Off-chain Computation, 3) Verifiable Computation, and 4)Support dApps' needs like privacy-preserving data exchange.The remainder of this paper is organized as follows: Section 1 introduces the real world motivations which inspired us to build a secure computation network. Following motivations, we highlight our contributions in section 2. We then cover the background of secure computation, along with a comparison of similar technologies. Our system overview is presented in section 4. There, we briefly describe our system design and implementation. In section 5-7, we discuss, in detail, the major components of our multiparty computation protocol, secure computation process, and considerations in cryptoeconomics. Lastly, we review the implications and applications of the real world; this includes ecosystem design, business cases, and milestones.
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