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The advancement in science and technology has led to luffa sponge (LS) being widely used as a natural material in industrial application because of its polyporous structure and light texture. To enhance the utility of LS fibers as the reinforcement of lightweight composite materials, the current study investigates their water absorption, mechanical properties, anatomical characteristics and thermal performance. Hence, moisture regain and tensile properties of LS fiber bundles were measured in accordance with American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM) standards while their structural characteristics were investigated via microscopic observation. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) was used to observe the surface morphology and fractured surface of fiber bundles. The test results show that the special structure where the phloem tissues degenerate to cavities had a significant influence on the mechanical properties of LS fiber bundles. Additionally, the transverse sectional area occupied by fibers in a fiber bundle (SF), wall thickness, ratio of wall to lumen of fiber cell, and crystallinity of cellulose had substantial impact on the mechanical properties of LS fiber bundles. Furthermore, the density of fiber bundles of LS ranged within 385.46–468.70 kg/m3, significantly less than that of jute (1360.40 kg/m3) and Arenga engleri (950.20 kg/m3). However, LS fiber bundles demonstrated superior specific modulus than Arenga engleri.

ABSTRACT:The manner in which strains are passed down the hierarchical length scales of tendons dictates how cells within the collagen network regulate the tissue response to loading. How tendons deform in different hierarchical levels under shear and compression is unknown. The aims of this study were: (i) to evaluate whether specific regions of bovine deep digital flexor tendons exhibited different strain attenuation from macro to micro length scales, and (ii) to elucidate mechanisms responsible for tendon deformation under shear and compression. Samples from distal and proximal regions of flexor tendons were subjected to three-step incremental stress-relaxation tests. Images of tissue markers, photobleached lines on collagen fibers, and nuclei locations were collected before and after loading. Results showed that strain transfer was attenuated from tissue to local matrix under both shear and compression. Nuclear aspect ratios exhibited smaller changes for distal samples, suggesting that cells are more shielded from deformation in the distal region. Collagen fiber sliding was observed to contribute significantly in response to shear, while uncrimping and fiber reorganization were the predominant mechanisms under compression. This study provides insight into microscale mechanisms responsible for multiscale strain attenuation of tendons under non-tensile macroscale loading. Keywords: tendon; multiscale strain transfer; shear; compression; two-photon microscopy In addition to experiencing tensile loading, tendons often function in complicated in vivo loading environments. In such cases, cell-driven alterations to the compositional and structural properties of tendons lead to mechanical properties that can vary with anatomical locations, regions within the tendon, species, and age. For example, the supraspinatus tendon (SST), one of four musculotendinous units in the rotator cuff of the shoulder, experiences shear and compressive forces as a result of the wide range of motion of the shoulder joint and complex interactions with neighboring anatomy. 1-4 As a result, specific locations of the human SST exhibit significantly different fiber alignment and tensile modulus during tensile loading, 5,6 as well as compositional differences (i.e., collagens, proteoglycans) by location. 3,7 Similarly, the bovine deep digital flexor tendon (DDFT) functions in a multiaxial physiological loading environment with forces that vary at different anatomical locations: the proximal region is mostly loaded in tension, while the distal region is also compressed against the navicular bone during normal joint function. 8-13 Our previous study, 14 which evaluated the DDFT as an easily accessible example of a complexly loaded tendon with tissue-level properties that vary by location, 8 demonstrated that the proximal and distal regions exhibited different elastic mechanical properties, yet similar viscoelastic properties, and inhomogeneous proteoglycan distribution and collagen organization.Several previous studies have explored how strains t...

The hierarchical structure of tendon allows for attenuation of mechanical strain down decreasing length scales. While reorganization of collagen fibers accounts for microscale strain attenuation, cross-linking between collagen molecules contributes to deformation mechanisms at the fibrillar and molecular scales. Divalent and trivalent enzymatic cross-links form during the development of collagen fibrils through the enzymatic activity of lysyl oxidase (LOX). By establishing connections between telopeptidyl and triple-helical domains of adjacent molecules within collagen fibrils, these cross-links stiffen the fibrils by resisting intermolecular sliding. Ultimately, greater enzymatic cross-linking leads to less compliant and stronger tendon as a result of stiffer fibrils. In contrast, nonenzymatic cross-links such as glucosepane and pentosidine are not produced during development but slowly accumulate through glycation of collagen. Therefore, these cross-links are only expected to be present in significant quantities in advanced age, where there has been sufficient time for glycation to occur, and in diabetes, where the presence of more free sugar in the extracellular matrix increases the rate of glycation. Unlike enzymatic cross-links, current evidence suggests that nonenzymatic cross-links are at least partially isolated to the surface of collagen fibers. As a result, glycation has been proposed to primarily impact tendon mechanics by altering molecular interactions at the fiber interface, thereby diminishing sliding between fibers. Thus, increased nonenzymatic cross-linking decreases microscale strain attenuation and the viscous response of tendon. In conclusion, enzymatic and nonenzymatic collagen cross-links have demonstrable and distinct effects on the mechanical properties of tendon across different length scales.

Elastic fibers are present in low quantities in tendon, where they are located both within fascicles near tenocytes and more broadly in the interfascicular matrix (IFM). While elastic fibers have long been known to be significant in the mechanics of elastin-rich tissue (i.e., vasculature, skin, lungs), recent studies have suggested a mechanical role for elastic fibers in tendons that is dependent on specific tendon function. However, the exact contribution of elastin to properties of different types of tendons (e.g., positional, energy-storing) remains unknown. Therefore, this study purposed to evaluate the role of elastin in the mechanical properties and collagen alignment of functionally distinct supraspinatus tendons (SSTs) and Achilles tendons (ATs) from elastin haploinsufficient (HET) and wild type (WT) mice. Despite the significant decrease in elastin in HET tendons, a slight increase in linear stiffness of both tendons was the only significant mechanical effect of elastin haploinsufficiency. Additionally, there were significant changes in collagen nanostructure and subtle alteration to collagen alignment in the AT but not the SST. Hence, elastin may play only a minor role in tendon mechanical properties. Alternatively, larger changes to tendon mechanics may have been mitigated by developmental compensation of HET tendons and/or the role of elastic fibers may be less prominent in smaller mouse tendons compared to the larger bovine and human tendons evaluated in previous studies. Further research will be necessary to fully elucidate the influence of various elastic fiber components on structure-function relationships in functionally distinct tendons.

The tendon enthesis is a fibrocartilaginous tissue critical for transfer of muscle forces to bone. Enthesis pathologies are common, and surgical repair of tendon to bone is plagued by high failure rates. At the root of these failures is a gap in knowledge of how the tendon enthesis is formed and maintained. We tested the hypothesis that the primary cilium is a hub for transducing biophysical and hedgehog (Hh) signals to regulate tendon enthesis formation and adaptation to loading. Primary cilia were necessary for enthesis development, and cilia assembly was coincident with Hh signaling and enthesis mineralization. Cilia responded inversely to loading; increased loading led to decreased cilia and decreased loading led to increased cilia. Enthesis responses to loading were dependent on Hh signaling through cilia. Results imply a role for tendon enthesis primary cilia as mechanical responders and Hh signal transducers, providing a therapeutic target for tendon enthesis pathologies.

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Tendon exhibits anisotropic, inhomogeneous and viscoelastic mechanical properties that are determined by its complicated hierarchical structure and varying amounts/organization of different tissue constituents. Although extensive research has been conducted to use modelling approaches to interpret tendon structure–function relationships in combination with experimental data, many issues remain unclear (i.e. the role of minor components such as decorin, aggrecan and elastin), and the integration of mechanical analysis across different length scales has not been well applied to explore stress or strain transfer from macro- to microscale. This review outlines mathematical and computational models that have been used to understand tendon mechanics at different scales of the hierarchical organization. Model representations at the molecular, fibril and tissue levels are discussed, including formulations that follow phenomenological and microstructural approaches (which include evaluations of crimp, helical structure and the interaction between collagen fibrils and proteoglycans). Multiscale modelling approaches incorporating tendon features are suggested to be an advantageous methodology to understand further the physiological mechanical response of tendon and corresponding adaptation of properties owing to unique in vivo loading environments.