DEVELOPMENT 3486bodies undergo apoptosis and are removed via phagocytic cells in the blood, the primary bud migrates into the newly vacated region of the colony, opening its siphons and becoming a zooid, the secondary bud becomes the primary bud, and a new secondary bud begins to develop. Thus, the life history of Botryllus consists of a constant succession of individual zooids, each with a three-week lifespan (Lauzon et al., 2002).Asexual development (blastogenesis) takes 14 days under laboratory conditions, and can be divided into seven distinct visual stages ( Fig. 1; stages A-1 through D) (Lauzon et al., 2002). A new generation starts as a secondary bud, first visible as a thickening of the peribranchial epithelium of a primary bud ( Fig. 1; stage A1), which evaginates and forms a closed vesicle ( Fig. 1; stage A-2 through B-2). Next, a series of epithelial invaginations and protrusions ( Fig. 1; stage C-1) differentiate into somatic tissues and organs ( Fig. 1; stage C-2). After seven days ( Fig. 1; stage D), the secondary bud transitions to a primary bud and continues to develop. At day 14, the siphons open and the primary bud becomes a filterfeeding adult zooid. Each zooid can generate multiple buds each week, so the colony will eventually expand asexually. While interconnected, the zooids and buds develop independently, and individuals can be separated from the colony without disturbing their growth (i.e. subcloning), thus multiple experiments can be done on a single genotype.Following metamorphosis, colonies undergo at least 8-12 developmental cycles prior to the first appearance of gametes (sexual maturity). In addition, populations show seasonal fertility, and in the lab cycle in and out of reproductive (fertile) and nonreproductive (infertile) states. However when the colony is fertile development of the gametes is synchronized with somatic development (Mukai, 1977;Mukai and Watanabe, 1976;Sabbadin and Zaniolo, 1979). The first appearance of gonads occurs in the secondary bud (stage B), when mobile progenitors in the blood migrate to a region between the inner epithelium and the epidermis and begin to proliferate. Concurrently, oocytes at various stages of development also appear (Fig. 1). Over the next 10 days, the medial region of the blastema will differentiate into the lobular testis, while the lateral region will become the ovary (Sabbadin and Zaniolo, 1979). For the latter, one or several oocytes will become fixed on the epithelia of the peribranchial chamber, and an oviduct will form from the outer follicular layer. Upon transition to the adult zooid, mature eggs will immediately ovulate into the peribranchial chamber, be fertilized by exogenous sperm, and develop in situ. Several hours to days later the testes will complete development, and sperm will be released into the peribranchial chamber and flushed into the water column, fertilizing neighboring colonies (Johnson and Yund, 2004). The time lag between ovulation and sperm release (protogyny) prevents self-fertilization.Given this plastici...
Summary: The origin of chordates remains one of the major puzzles of zoology, even after more than a century of intense scientific inquiry, following Darwin's ''Origin of Species''. The chordates exhibit a unique body plan that evolved from a deuterostome ancestor some time before the Cambrian. Molecular data gathered from phylogenetics and developmental gene expression has changed our perception of the relationships within and between deuterostome phyla. Recent developmental gene expression data has shown that the chordates use similar gene families and networks to specify their anterior-posterior, dorsal-ventral and left-right body axes. The anterior-posterior axis is similarly established among deuterostomes and is determined by a related family of transcription factors, the Hox gene clusters and Wnt signaling pathways. In contrast, the dorsalventral axis is inverted in chordates, compared with other nonchordate invertebrates, while still determined by expression of BMP signaling pathway members and their antagonists. Finally, left-right asymmetries in diverse deuterostomes are determined by nodal signaling. These new data allow revised, testable hypotheses about our earliest ancestors. We present a new hypothesis for the origin of the chordates whereby the expansion of BMP during dorsal-ventral patterning allowed the evolution of noneural ectoderm and pharyngeal gill slits on the ventral side. We conclude that ''Man is but a worm . . . ,'' that our chordate ancestors were worm-like deposit and/or filter feeders with pharyngeal slits, and an anterior tripartite unsegmented neurosensory region. genesis 46:605-613,
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