The systematization of species in plant taxonomy based on the phylogenetic relationships among them are of utmost importance and also very challenging in large genera. In those, phylogenetic results often may suggest substantially different relationships than previous classifications, and call for large-scale taxonomic revisions. Delimitation of the genus Silene has been and is still somewhat controversial, and recent molecular phylogenetic studies have settled several monophyletic groups that differ substantially from previous taxonomies. The infrageneric taxonomy of Silene s.str. has not been updated as a whole taking the phylogenetic information into account. In this study, we review previous phylogenetic results based on multiple loci, and conducted comprehensive gene tree analyses based on the nrDNA ITS and cpDNA rps16 regions for 1586 and 944 samples representing 415 and 397 species, respectively, including Silene and its allies, as well as a species tree analysis including 262 samples representing 243 species. We sampled representatives from all 44 sections recognized in the most recent global revision of the genus. The results support the recognition of three subgenera, i.e., S. subg. Behenantha, S. subg. Lychnis and S. subg. Silene, which is partly in agreement with previous molecular phylogenetic findings and contradicts all previous traditional classifications. Silene sect. Atocion, with a few annual species showing a narrow distribution range in the eastern Mediterranean, is treated as incertae sedis because of its uncertain phylogenetic position, possibly due to exceptionally high substitution rates. Silene subg. Lychnis, weakly supported as sister to the other subgenera, splits into three main clades and includes four sections. Silene subg. Behenantha, which forms a possible sister group in relation to S. subg. Silene, is poorly resolved basally and includes a large number of mostly small clades recognized as 18 sections. In S. subg. Silene, 11 sections are recognized, among which four are broadly circumscribed: S. sect. Auriculatae, S. sect. Sclerocalycinae, S. sect. Silene and S. sect. Siphonomorpha. Silene sect. Acutifoliae and S. sect. Portenses are described here as new taxa, whereas new status or new combinations are proposed for S. sect. Anotites, S. sect. Muscipula, S. sect. Petrocoma, S. sect. Pulvinatae, S. sect. Sclerophyllae and S. sect. Uebelinia. Five new combinations and two new names are proposed for taxa in Silene formerly assigned to Lychnis and Uebelinia. The correct infrageneric nomenclature compatible with the new infrageneric system is provided along with synonymy and type citations. Shortcomings of this study, such as the lack of a morphological diagnostic key and sparse sampling of some large sections, are listed and discussed.

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The aim of this study was to optimize the cationic PEGylated niosome-containing anti-cancer drugs and siRNA to enhance the therapeutic response. Therefore, various surfactant-based (tween-60) vesicles of doxorubicin (DOX; a chemotherapeutic drug) and quercetin (QC; a chemosensitizer) were prepared. To load siRNA on niosomes, 1, 2-dioleoyl-3-trimethylammonium-propane (DOTAP) was used as a cationic lipid. The optimum formulation containing tween-60:cholesterol:DPPC:DOTAP:DSPE-PEG2000 at 49.5:5.5:15:25:5 demonstrated that the vesicle size and zeta potential were 52.8 ± 2.7 nm and +27.4 ± 2.3 mV, respectively. Entrapment efficiency (EE%) for DOX and QC was 86.4 ± 2.1% and 94.9 ± 3.9%, respectively. Moreover, the drug release during 6 h was 32.1 ± 1.6% and 30.5 ± 1.3% for DOX and QC, respectively denoted on the controlled release. The gel retardation assay demonstrated that siRNA could be successfully loaded into a cationic niosome:siRNA in a weight ratio 40:1. Additionally, noisome-encapsulated drugs had a higher toxicity against cancer cells when compared with un-encapsulated forms and the synergistic effects of co-delivery of siRNA and DOX with QC on gastric, prostate, breast cancer cells as well as human foreskin fibroblast as a normal cell line was shown. The results showed that the co-delivery of drugs and siRNA using cationic PEGylated niosomes exhibited an increased anti-cancer activity against the tumor cell death. It seems that cationic PEGylated niosomes have opened up a new avenue to enrich the armamentarium of therapeutic agents to fight cancer.

The mechanistic/mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) is considered to be an atypical protein kinase that plays a critical role in integrating different cellular and environmental inputs in the form of growth factors, nutrients and energy and, subsequently, in regulating different cellular events, including cell metabolism, survival, homeostasis, growth and cellular differentiation. Immunologically, mTOR is a critical regulator of immune function through integrating numerous signals from the immune microenvironment, which coordinates the functions of immune cells and T cell fate decisions. The crucial role of mTOR in immune responses has been lately even more appreciated. MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenous, small, noncoding single-stranded RNAs that act as molecular regulators involved in multiple processes during immune cells development, homeostasis, activation and effector polarization. Several studies have recently indicated that a range of miRNAs are involved in regulating the phosphoinositide 3-kinase/protein kinase B/mTOR (PI3K/AKT/ mTOR) signaling pathway by targeting multiple components of this signaling pathway and modulating the expression and function of these targets. Current evidence has revealed the interplay between miRNAs and the mTOR pathway circuits in various immune cell types. The expression of individual miRNA can affect the function of mTOR signaling to determine the cell fate decisions in immune responses through coordinating immune signaling and cell metabolism. Dysregulation of the mTOR pathway/miRNAs crosstalk has been reported in cancers and various immune-related diseases. Thus, expression profiles of dysregulated miRNAs could influence the mTOR pathway, resulting in the promotion of aberrant immunity. This review summarizes the latest information regarding the reciprocal role of the mTOR signaling pathway and miRNAs in orchestrating immune responses.

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A putatively monophyletic group of annual Silene species is revised taxonomically and described as the new section S. sect. Arenosae. The species of this section were previously treated as a part of a widely circumscribed and polyphyletic S. sect. Rigidulae. Silene sect. Arenosae as circumscribed here consists of nine species. Members of the section show a predominantly E Mediterranean to SW Asian distribution pattern from Turkey southward to Egypt and eastward to Iran and Pakistan, although most of the species have a limited distribution range. The species of S. sect. Arenosae are characterized by narrowly lanceolate calyx teeth, which are often highly polymorphic, and lanceolate to oblanceolate (non-spathulate) basal leaves. The provided taxonomic revision is based on morphological characters and supported by phylogenetic analyses of two nuclear loci (nrITS and an intron of the RPB2 gene) and one chloroplast locus (the intron of the rps16 gene). The species descriptions are formalized using a novel implementation of the Prometheus Description Model.

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Two new species―Silene orientoalborzensis and S. circumcarmanica―are here described from Northeast and South Iran, respectively. They belong to Silene subg. Silene sect. Auriculatae which is the largest section of the genus in W-Asia. A specimen from center of Iran, which was identified erroneously as S. atocioides, is revised and identified as S. pendula which represents a new record for the Iranian flora. S. simsii is proposed as a nomen novum for Cucubalus multifidus.