Background: Differences in interlaboratory research protocols contribute to the conflicting data in the literature regarding engineered nanomaterial (ENM) bioactivity.Objectives: Grantees of a National Institute of Health Sciences (NIEHS)-funded consortium program performed two phases of in vitro testing with selected ENMs in an effort to identify and minimize sources of variability.Methods: Consortium program participants (CPPs) conducted ENM bioactivity evaluations on zinc oxide (ZnO), three forms of titanium dioxide (TiO2), and three forms of multiwalled carbon nanotubes (MWCNTs). In addition, CPPs performed bioassays using three mammalian cell lines (BEAS-2B, RLE-6TN, and THP-1) selected in order to cover two different species (rat and human), two different lung epithelial cells (alveolar type II and bronchial epithelial cells), and two different cell types (epithelial cells and macrophages). CPPs also measured cytotoxicity in all cell types while measuring inflammasome activation [interleukin-1β (IL-1β) release] using only THP-1 cells.Results: The overall in vitro toxicity profiles of ENM were as follows: ZnO was cytotoxic to all cell types at ≥ 50 μg/mL, but did not induce IL-1β. TiO2 was not cytotoxic except for the nanobelt form, which was cytotoxic and induced significant IL-1β production in THP-1 cells. MWCNTs did not produce cytotoxicity, but stimulated lower levels of IL-1β production in THP-1 cells, with the original MWCNT producing the most IL-1β.Conclusions: The results provide justification for the inclusion of mechanism-linked bioactivity assays along with traditional cytotoxicity assays for in vitro screening. In addition, the results suggest that conducting studies with multiple relevant cell types to avoid false-negative outcomes is critical for accurate evaluation of ENM bioactivity.

To explore mechanisms of nanoparticle interactions with and trafficking across lung alveolar epithelium, we utilized primary rat alveolar epithelial cell monolayers (RAECMs) and an artificial lipid bilayer on filter model (ALBF). Trafficking rates of fluorescently labeled polystyrene nanoparticles (PNPs; 20 and 100 nm, carboxylate (negatively charged) or amidine (positively charged)-modified) in the apical-to-basolateral direction under various experimental conditions were measured. Using confocal laser scanning microscopy, we investigated PNP colocalization with early endosome antigen-1, caveolin-1, clathrin heavy chain, cholera toxin B, and wheat germ agglutinin. Leakage of 5-carboxyfluorescein diacetate from RAECMs, and trafficking of (22)Na and (14)C-mannitol across ALBF, were measured in the presence and absence of PNPs. Results showed that trafficking of positively charged PNPs was 20-40 times that of negatively charged PNPs across both RAECMs and ALBF, whereas translocation of PNPs across RAECMs was 2-3 times faster than that across ALBF. Trafficking rates of PNPs across RAECMs did not change in the presence of EGTA (which decreased transepithelial electrical resistance to zero) or inhibitors of endocytosis. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed no intracellular colocalization of PNPs with early endosome antigen-1, caveolin-1, clathrin heavy chain, cholera toxin B, or wheat germ agglutinin. Leakage of 5-carboxyfluorescein diacetate from alveolar epithelial cells, and sodium ion and mannitol flux across ALBF, were not different in the presence or absence of PNPs. These data indicate that PNPs translocate primarily transcellularly across RAECMs, but not via known major endocytic pathways, and suggest that such translocation may take place by diffusion of PNPs through the lipid bilayer of cell plasma membranes.

Rationale: Although inhalation of zinc oxide (ZnO) nanoparticles (NPs) is known to cause systemic disease (i.e., metal fume fever), little is known about mechanisms underlying injury to alveolar epithelium. Objectives: Investigate ZnO NP-induced injury to alveolar epithelium by exposing primary cultured rat alveolar epithelial cell monolayers (RAECMs) to ZnO NPs. Methods: RAECMs were exposed apically to ZnO NPs or, in some experiments, to culture fluid containing ZnCl 2 or free Zn released from ZnO NPs. Transepithelial electrical resistance (R T ) and equivalent short-circuit current (I EQ ) were assessed as functions of concentration and time. Morphologic changes, lactate dehydrogenase release, cell membrane integrity, intracellular reactive oxygen species (ROS), and mitochondrial activity were measured. Measurements and Main Results: Apical exposure to 176 mg/ml ZnO NPs decreased R T and I EQ of RAECMs by 100% over 24 hours, whereas exposure to 11 mg/ml ZnO NPs had little effect. Changes in R T and I EQ caused by 176 mg/ml ZnO NPs were irreversible. ZnO NP effects on R T yielded half-maximal concentrations of approximately 20 mg/ml. Apical exposure for 24 hours to 176 mg/ml ZnO NPs induced decreases in mitochondrial activity and increases in lactate dehydrogenase release, permeability to fluorescein sulfonic acid, increased intracellular ROS, and translocation of ZnO NPs from apical to basolateral fluid (most likely across injured cells and/or damaged paracellular pathways). Conclusions: ZnO NPs cause severe injury to RAECMs in a dose-and time-dependent manner, mediated, at least in part, by free Zn released from ZnO NPs, mitochondrial dysfunction, and increased intracellular ROS.Keywords: epithelial monolayers; zinc toxicity; reactive oxygen species; mitochondrial damage; plasma membrane integrity Nanoparticles (NPs) are used in many commercial products and new applications in biomedicine, yet their fate, potential toxicity, and mechanisms of translocation in biological cells, tissues, and organs (including the lung) have not been well defined. Some, but not all, inhaled NPs (including ambient ultrafine particulates that overlap in size with NPs) have been reported to be associated with adverse health effects (1, 2). There is evidence that measurable amounts of these inhaled NPs are found in end organs (e.g., liver, spleen, and heart) after inhalation (3-6), possibly leading to thrombosis, atherogenesis, and cardiac dysrhythmias (3,7,8). NPs found in end organs after inhalation are most likely to enter the systemic circulation across the epithelia of the lung, especially the alveolar epithelium, which constitutes a very thin biological barrier (z0.5 mm) and affords greater than 95% of the surface area (z100 m 2 in humans) in distal airspaces of the lung.Of the NPs and ambient ultrafine particulates studied to date, several metal (e.g., Fe, Zn, V, and Ni) and metal oxide (Fe 2 O 3, ZnO, V 2 O 5 , and NiO) NPs have the potential to cause inflammation and injury in lungs (9-12). Among metal and metal oxide NPs i...

Polystyrene nanoparticles (PNP) cross rat alveolar epithelial cell monolayers via non-endocytic transcellular pathways. To evaluate epithelial cell type-specificity of PNP trafficking, we studied PNP flux across Madin Darby canine kidney cell II monolayers (MDCK-II). Effects of calcium chelation (EGTA), energy depletion (sodium azide (NaN 3 ) or decreased temperature), and endocytosis inhibitors methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MBC), monodansylcadaverine and dynasore were determined. Amidine-modified PNP cross MDCK-II 500 times faster than carboxylate-modified PNP. PNP flux did not increase in the presence of EGTA. PNP flux at 4°C and after treatment with NaN 3 decreased 75% and 80%, respectively. MBC exposure did not decrease PNP flux, whereas dansylcadaverine-or dynasore-treated MDCK-II exhibited ~80% decreases in PNP flux. Confocal laser scanning microscopy revealed intracellular colocalization of PNP with clathrin heavy chain. These data indicate that PNP translocation across MDCK-II (1) occurs via clathrinmediated endocytosis and (2) is dependent upon PNP physicochemical properties. We conclude that uptake/trafficking of nanoparticles into/across epithelia is dependent both on properties of the nanoparticles and the specific epithelial cell type.