Background In recent years, interest in digital games has grown significantly and at the same time a range of games in 2D and 3D has been created. While 2D games cannot give depth to objects, 3D games creates spatial depth. The growth of the gaming industry has raised concerns among some psychologists. There is still much controversy about positive or negative effects of these games on cognitive performance. Executive functions are a set of cognitive abilities that play a decisive role in one’s purposeful behavior. The present study aims to investigate the effect of 2D and 3D video games on some of these functions—flexibility, inhibition, and continuous attention—in male students aged 18–26 years. Method Forty-five male students at Persian Gulf University participated in the study. They were matched based on intelligence score and experience of playing video games. The participants were divided into three groups of 15 (two experimental groups and one control group). Participants in the two experimental groups played 2D and 3D video games over 20 sessions. They completed the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test, continuous performance test, Stroop test, and Raven intelligence test. Results Data were analyzed via covariance and the results showed that playing 2D and 3D video games positively and significantly affects inhibition and playing 3D games has a significant positive effect on flexibility. Conclusion Based on our findings, we discuss the different effects of 2D and 3D video games, in line with the study’s theoretical framework, and give suggestions for future studies.
Background: Self-criticism is one of the personal characteristics that led to the inability to communicate properly with others, and as a result of this feeling, people blame themselves constantly. Objectives: This study was aimed to comprise the self-criticism in patients with obsessive-compulsive as well as major depression disorders and normal individuals. Methods: Study methodology was a casual-comparative of post ex facto type. The study population included all patients with major depression and obsessive-compulsive referred to psychiatric hospitals, psychiatric clinics, private and public centers of counseling, psychological services, and normal people. The present study consisted of 20 people with major depression, 20 people with obsessive-compulsive, and 40 normal people who were selected by purposive sampling method. To analyze the data, ANOVA was used. Results: Its results showed that the difference between the study groups in self-criticism was statistically significant. Scheffe post hoc test results showed that there is a significant difference between depressed and healthy groups, obsessive-compulsive and healthy groups, as well as depressed and obsessive-compulsive groups. Furthermore, the average self-compulsive in the depressed group is higher compared to other groups. Conclusions: Self-criticism is one of the traits vulnerable to depression; this trait not only causes depression, but is also affected by the symptoms of depression.
Adolescence is a critical period for developing neurobiological processes that create the basis for higher cognitive functions and emotional and social behaviour (Yurgelun-Todd, 2007). The adolescent's brain exhibits situational changes in structural and functional regions, especially the limbic and frontal cortex regions known to regulate emotions and functional processes (Ahmed et al., 2015). It is assumed that a developing brain reduces the ability of an adolescent to successfully regulate emotions and puts the adolescent at risk of anxiety and stress disorders (Powers & Casey, 2015). Moreover, physical and biological changes, the need for independence, and emotional and stressful reactions often follow academic pressure during this period (Ahmed et al., 2015;Hilt et al., 2011).
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