Despite recent advances of deep Convolutional Neural Networks (CNNs) in various computer vision tasks, their potential for classification of multispectral remote sensing images has not been thoroughly explored. In particular, the applications of deep CNNs using optical remote sensing data have focused on the classification of very high-resolution aerial and satellite data, owing to the similarity of these data to the large datasets in computer vision. Accordingly, this study presents a detailed investigation of state-of-the-art deep learning tools for classification of complex wetland classes using multispectral RapidEye optical imagery. Specifically, we examine the capacity of seven well-known deep convnets, namely DenseNet121, InceptionV3, VGG16, VGG19, Xception, ResNet50, and InceptionResNetV2, for wetland mapping in Canada. In addition, the classification results obtained from deep CNNs are compared with those based on conventional machine learning tools, including Random Forest and Support Vector Machine, to further evaluate the efficiency of the former to classify wetlands. The results illustrate that the full-training of convnets using five spectral bands outperforms the other strategies for all convnets. InceptionResNetV2, ResNet50, and Xception are distinguished as the top three convnets, providing state-of-the-art classification accuracies of 96.17%, 94.81%, and 93.57%, respectively. The classification accuracies obtained using Support Vector Machine (SVM) and Random Forest (RF) are 74.89% and 76.08%, respectively, considerably inferior relative to CNNs. Importantly, InceptionResNetV2 is consistently found to be superior compared to all other convnets, suggesting the integration of Inception and ResNet modules is an efficient architecture for classifying complex remote sensing scenes such as wetlands.

Several machine-learning algorithms have been proposed for remote sensing image classification during the past two decades. Among these machine learning algorithms, Random Forest (RF) and Support Vector Machines (SVM) have drawn attention to image classification in several remote sensing applications. This paper reviews RF and SVM concepts relevant to remote sensing image classification and applies a meta-analysis of 251 peer-reviewed journal papers. A database with more than 40 quantitative and qualitative fields was constructed from these reviewed papers. The meta-analysis mainly focuses on: (1) the analysis regarding the general characteristics of the studies, such as geographical distribution, frequency of the papers considering time, journals, application domains, and remote sensing software packages used in the case studies, and (2) a comparative analysis regarding the performances of RF and SVM classification against various parameters, such as data type, RS applications, spatial resolution, and the number of extracted features in the feature engineering step. The challenges, recommendations, and potential directions for future research are also discussed in detail. Moreover, a summary of the results is provided to aid researchers to customize their efforts in order to achieve the most accurate results based on their thematic applications.

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Wetlands are one of the most important ecosystems that provide a desirable habitat for a great variety of flora and fauna. Wetland mapping and modeling using Earth Observation (EO) data are essential for natural resource management at both regional and national levels. However, accurate wetland mapping is challenging, especially on a large scale, given their heterogeneous and fragmented landscape, as well as the spectral similarity of differing wetland classes. Currently, precise, consistent, and comprehensive wetland inventories on a national- or provincial-scale are lacking globally, with most studies focused on the generation of local-scale maps from limited remote sensing data. Leveraging the Google Earth Engine (GEE) computational power and the availability of high spatial resolution remote sensing data collected by Copernicus Sentinels, this study introduces the first detailed, provincial-scale wetland inventory map of one of the richest Canadian provinces in terms of wetland extent. In particular, multi-year summer Synthetic Aperture Radar (SAR) Sentinel-1 and optical Sentinel-2 data composites were used to identify the spatial distribution of five wetland and three non-wetland classes on the Island of Newfoundland, covering an approximate area of 106,000 km2. The classification results were evaluated using both pixel-based and object-based random forest (RF) classifications implemented on the GEE platform. The results revealed the superiority of the object-based approach relative to the pixel-based classification for wetland mapping. Although the classification using multi-year optical data was more accurate compared to that of SAR, the inclusion of both types of data significantly improved the classification accuracies of wetland classes. In particular, an overall accuracy of 88.37% and a Kappa coefficient of 0.85 were achieved with the multi-year summer SAR/optical composite using an object-based RF classification, wherein all wetland and non-wetland classes were correctly identified with accuracies beyond 70% and 90%, respectively. The results suggest a paradigm-shift from standard static products and approaches toward generating more dynamic, on-demand, large-scale wetland coverage maps through advanced cloud computing resources that simplify access to and processing of the “Geo Big Data.” In addition, the resulting ever-demanding inventory map of Newfoundland is of great interest to and can be used by many stakeholders, including federal and provincial governments, municipalities, NGOs, and environmental consultants to name a few.

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