Stroke significantly stimulates neurogenesis in the adult dentate gyrus, though the functional role of this postlesional response is mostly unclear. Recent findings suggest that newborn neurons generated in the context of stroke may fail to correctly integrate into pre-existing networks. We hypothesized that increased neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus following stroke is associated with aberrant neurogenesis and impairment of hippocampus-dependent memory. To address these questions we used the middle cerebral artery occlusion model (MCAO) in mice. Animals were housed either under standard conditions or with free access to running wheels. Newborn granule cells were labelled with the thymidine analoque EdU and retroviral vectors. To assess memory performance, we employed a modified version of the Morris water maze (MWM) allowing differentiation between hippocampus dependent and independent learning strategies. Newborn neurons were morphologically analyzed using confocal microscopy and Neurolucida system at 7 weeks. We found that neurogenesis was significantly increased following MCAO. Animals with MCAO needed more time to localize the platform and employed less hippocampus-dependent search strategies in MWM versus controls. Confocal studies revealed an aberrant cell morphology with basal dendrites and an ectopic location (e.g. hilus) of new granule cells born in the ischemic brain. Running increased the number of new neurons but also enhanced aberrant neurogenesis. Running, did not improve the general performance in the MWM but slightly promoted the application of precise spatial search strategies. In conclusion, ischemic insults cause hippocampal-dependent memory deficits which are associated with aberrant neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus indicating ischemia-induced maladaptive plasticity in the hippocampus.

Background and Purpose— Adult neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus is a unique form of brain plasticity that is strongly stimulated after stroke. We investigate the morphological properties of new granule cells, which are born and develop after the ischemic insult, and query whether these adult-born neurons properly integrate into the pre-existing hippocampal circuitries. Methods— Two well-established models were used to induce either small cortical infarcts (photothrombosis model) or large territorial infarcts (transient middle cerebral artery occlusion model). New granule cells were labeled 4 days after the initial insult by intrahippocampal injection of a retroviral vector encoding green fluorescent protein and newborn neurons were morphologically analyzed using a semiautomatic Neurolucida system and confocal laser scanning microscopy at 6 weeks. Results— Approximately 5% to 10% of newborn granule cells displayed significant morphological abnormalities comprising additional basal dendrites and, after middle cerebral artery occlusion, also ectopic cell position. The extent of morphological abnormalities was higher after large territorial infarcts and seems to depend on the severity of ischemic damage. An increased portion of mushroom spines in aberrant neurons suggests stable synaptic integration. However, poststroke generated granule cells with regular appearance also demonstrate alterations in dendritic complexity and spine morphology. Conclusions— The remarkable stimulation of dentate neurogenesis after stroke coincides with an increased rate of aberrantly integrated neurons, which may contribute to functional impairments and, hypothetically, favor pathogenesis of adjustment disorders, cognitive deficits, or epilepsy often seen in stroke patients.

Background Increased motor activity or social interactions through enriched environment are strong stimulators of grey and white matter plasticity in the adult rodent brain. In the present study we evaluated whether specific reaching training of the dominant forelimb (RT) and stimulation of unspecific motor activity through enriched environment (EE) influence the generation of distinct oligodendrocyte subpopulations in the sensorimotor cortex and corpus callosum of the adult rat brain. Animals were placed in three different housing conditions: one group was transferred to an EE, a second group received daily RT, whereas a third group remained in the standard cage. Bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was applied at days 2–6 after start of experiments and animals were allowed to survive for 10 and 42 days.ResultsEnriched environment and daily reaching training of the dominant forelimb significantly increased the number of newly differentiated GSTπ+ oligodendrocytes at day 10 and newly differentiated CNPase+ oligodendrocytes in the sensorimotor cortex at day 42. The myelin level as measured by CNPase expression was increased in the frontal cortex at day 42. Distribution of newly differentiated NG2+ subpopulations changed between 10 and 42 days with an increase of GSTπ+ subtypes and a decrease of NG2+ cells in the sensorimotor cortex and corpus callosum. Analysis of neuronal marker doublecortin (DCX) showed that more than half of NG2+ cells express DCX in the cortex. The number of new DCX+NG2+ cells was reduced by EE at day 10.ConclusionsOur results indicate for the first time that specific and unspecific motor training conditions differentially alter the process of differentiation from oligodendrocyte subpopulations, in particular NG2+DCX+ cells, in the sensorimotor cortex and corpus callosum.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12868-017-0347-2) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Neurogenesis in the subgranular zone of the mammalian hippocampal dentate gyrus contributes significantly to brain neuroplasticity. There is evidence that inflammation of the central nervous system inhibits neurogenesis but peripheral inflammation such as antigen-induced arthritis may rather enhance neurogenesis. Manifest arthritis is associated with symptoms such as pain and altered locomotion indicating that peripheral inflammation is associated with changes of both the immune system and the nervous system. This raises the intriguing question whether immune or neuronal factors or both actually drive changes of neurogenesis. Here we explored hippocampal neurogenesis in the rat during chronic antigen-induced arthritis in the knee joint. We analyzed neurogenesis in control rats, and in rats which were immunized for the antigen producing arthritis but which did not show arthritis and neurological symptoms, and in rats in which antigen injection into the knee produced manifest local inflammation and symptoms such as pain at the inflamed knee and altered locomotor behavior. Neurogenesis was assessed by quantifying bromodeoxyuridine-positive cells in sections of the complete hippocampal dentate gyrus. Compared to control animals, rats with antigen-induced arthritis presenting manifest local inflammation, hyperalgesia at the inflamed knee and significantly altered locomotion exhibited a significant increase of bromodeoxyuridine-positive cells. However, a similar increase in the number of such cells was found in rats which were only immunized against the antigen, but in which no local inflammatory response was induced and which thereby neither showed hyperalgesia nor alterations of locomotion. Thus we conclude that in peripheral immune-mediated arthritis the activation of the immune system in the process of immunization is the causal factor driving enhanced neurogenesis, and neither the local enhancement of inflammation nor the activation of the nervous system leading to neurological symptoms such as pain and altered locomotion. It seems noteworthy to further explore the clinical importance of this neuroimmune interaction.