mDia1, a Rho effector, belongs to the Formin family of proteins, which shares the conserved tandem FH1-FH2 unit structure. Formins including mDia1 accelerate actin nucleation while interacting with actin filament fast-growing ends. Here our single-molecule imaging revealed fast directional movement of mDia1 FH1-FH2 for tens of microns in living cells. The movement of mDia1 FH1-FH2 was blocked by actin-perturbing drugs, and the speed of mDia1 FH1-FH2 movement appeared to correlate with actin elongation rates. In vitro, mDia1 FH1-FH2 associated persistently with the growing actin barbed end. mDia1 probably moves processively along the growing end of actin filaments in cells, and Formins may be a molecular motility machinery that is independent from motor proteins.

During mitosis, the mitotic spindle, a bipolar structure composed of microtubules (MTs) and associated motor proteins, segregates sister chromatids to daughter cells. Initially some MTs emanating from one centrosome attach to the kinetochore at the centromere of one of the duplicated chromosomes. This attachment allows rapid poleward movement of the bound chromosome. Subsequent attachment of the sister kinetochore to MTs growing from the other centrosome results in the bi-orientation of the chromosome, in which interactions between kinetochores and the plus ends of MTs are formed and stabilized. These processes ensure alignment of chromosomes during metaphase and their correct segregation during anaphase. Although many proteins constituting the kinetochore have been identified and extensively studied, the signalling responsible for MT capture and stabilization is unclear. Small GTPases of the Rho family regulate cell morphogenesis by organizing the actin cytoskeleton and regulating MT alignment and stabilization. We now show that one member of this family, Cdc42, and its effector, mDia3, regulate MT attachment to kinetochores.

The potential use of induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) in personalized regenerative medicine applications may be augmented by transgenics, including the expression of constitutive cell labels, differentiation reporters, or modulators of disease phenotypes. Thus, there is precedence for reproducible transgene expression amongst iPSC sub-clones with isogenic or diverse genetic backgrounds. Using virus or transposon vectors, transgene integration sites and copy numbers are difficult to control, and nearly impossible to reproduce across multiple cell lines. Moreover, randomly integrated transgenes are often subject to pleiotropic position effects as a consequence of epigenetic changes inherent in differentiation, undermining applications in iPSCs. To address this, we have adapted popular TALEN and CRISPR/Cas9 nuclease technologies in order to introduce transgenes into pre-defined loci and overcome random position effects. AAVS1 is an exemplary locus within the PPP1R12C gene that permits robust expression of CAG promoter-driven transgenes. Gene targeting controls transgene copy number such that reporter expression patterns are reproducible and scalable by ∼2-fold. Furthermore, gene expression is maintained during long-term human iPSC culture and in vitro differentiation along multiple lineages. Here, we outline our AAVS1 targeting protocol using standardized donor vectors and construction methods, as well as provide practical considerations for iPSC culture, drug selection, and genotyping.

The control of the cell microenvironment on model patterned substrates allows the systematic study of cell biology in well defined conditions, potentially using automated systems. The extreme protein resistance of poly(oligo(ethylene glycol methacrylate)) (POEGMA) brushes is exploited to achieve high fidelity patterning of single cells. These coatings can be patterned by soft lithography on large areas (a microscope slide) and scale (substrates were typically prepared in batches of 200). The present protocol relies on the adsorption of extra-cellular matrix (ECM) proteins on unprotected areas using simple incubation and washing steps. The stability of POEGMA brushes, as examined via ellipsometry and SPR, is found to be excellent, both during storage and cell culture. The impact of substrate treatment, brush thickness and incubation protocol on ECM deposition, both for ultra-thin gold and glass substrates, is investigated via fluorescence microscopy and AFM. Optimised conditions result in high quality ECM patterns at the micron scale, even on glass substrates, that are suitable for controlling cell spreading and polarisation. These patterns are compatible with state-of-the-art technologies (fluorescence microscopy, FRET) used for live cell imaging. This technology, combined with single cell analysis methods, provides a platform for exploring the mechanisms that regulate cell behaviour.

Although Rho regulates cytokinesis, little was known about the functions in mitosis of Cdc42 and Rac. We recently suggested that Cdc42 works in metaphase by regulating bi-orient attachment of spindle microtubules to kinetochores. We now confirm the role of Cdc42 by RNA interference and identify the mechanisms for activation and down-regulation of Cdc42. Using a pull-down assay, we found that the level of GTP-Cdc42 elevates in metaphase, whereas the level of GTP-Rac does not change significantly in mitosis. Overexpression of dominant-negative mutants of Ect2 and MgcRacGAP, a Rho GTPase guanine nucleotide exchange factor and GTPase activating protein, respectively, or depletion of Ect2 by RNA interference suppresses this change of GTP-Cdc42 in mitosis. Depletion of Ect2 also impairs microtubule attachment to kinetochores and causes prometaphase delay and abnormal chromosomal segregation, as does depletion of Cdc42 or expression of the Ect2 and MgcRacGAP mutants. These results suggest that Ect2 and MgcRacGAP regulate the activation and function of Cdc42 in mitosis.

Transgenics is a mainstay of functional genomics. Conditionally overexpressing genes of interest (GOIs) helps to reveal their roles in the control of complex biological processes. Complemented by findings in classic animal model systems, recent advances in human embryonic stem cell (hESC) and patient-specific induced pluripotent stem cell (hiPSC) differentiation have led to sophisticated in vitro models of human development and disease. Yet, as transgenic elements encoding inducible systems must be introduced de novo into each genetically unique human stem cell line, robust and straightforward solutions to gene delivery are required. Transposons are a family of mobile DNA elements that have been adapted as experimental tools for stable genomic integration of transgenes. The piggyBac (PB) transposon from Trichoplusia ni presents a number of benefits over classic viral or BAC transgenesis: ease of application, simple integration-site mapping, and the unique capacity for traceless excision. Moreover, their large capacity permits the consolidation of multiple transgene components in a single vector system. In this chapter, we outline the features of a panel of "All-in-One" PB transposons designed for drug-inducible gene expression and provide guidelines to establish and validate populations or clones of transgenic hiPSCs.

Cdc42 and Rac family GTPases are important regulators of morphology, motility, and polarity in a variety of mammalian cell types. However, comprehensive analysis of their roles in the morphological and behavioral aspects of chemotaxis within a single experimental system is still lacking. Here we demonstrate using a direct viewing chemotaxis assay that of all of the Cdc42/Rac1-related GTPases expressed in primary fibroblasts, Cdc42, Rac1, and RhoG are required for efficient migration towards platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF). During migration, Cdc42-, Rac1-, and RhoG-deficient cells show aberrant morphology characterized as cell elongation and cell body rounding, loss of lamellipodia, and formation of thick membrane extensions, respectively. Analysis of individual cell trajectories reveals that cell speed is significantly reduced, as well as persistence, but to a smaller degree, while the directional response to the gradient of PDGF is not affected. Combined knockdown of Cdc42, Rac1, and RhoG results in greater inhibition of cell speed than when each protein is knocked down alone, but the cells are still capable of migrating toward PDGF. We conclude that, Cdc42, Rac1, and RhoG function cooperatively during cell migration and that, while each GTPase is implicated in the control of morphology and cell speed, these and other Cdc42/Rac-related GTPases are not essential for the directional response toward PDGF.

SummaryAs the quintessential reprogramming model, OCT3/4, SOX2, KLF4, and c-MYC re-wire somatic cells to achieve induced pluripotency. Yet, subtle differences in methodology confound comparative studies of reprogramming mechanisms. Employing transposons, we systematically assessed cellular and molecular hallmarks of mouse somatic cell reprogramming by various polycistronic cassettes. Reprogramming responses varied in the extent of initiation and stabilization of transgene-independent pluripotency. Notably, the cassettes employed one of two KLF4 variants, differing only by nine N-terminal amino acids, which generated dissimilar protein stoichiometry. Extending the shorter variant by nine N-terminal amino acids or augmenting stoichiometry by KLF4 supplementation rescued both protein levels and phenotypic disparities, implicating a threshold in determining reprogramming outcomes. Strikingly, global gene expression patterns elicited by published polycistronic cassettes diverged according to each KLF4 variant. Our data expose a Klf4 reference cDNA variation that alters polycistronic factor stoichiometry, predicts reprogramming hallmarks, and guides comparison of compatible public data sets.