Aquaporins (AQPs) are an ancient family of channel proteins that transport water and neutral solutes through a pore and are found in all eukaryotes and most prokaryotes. A comparison of the amino acid sequences and phylogenetic analysis of 31 full-length cDNAs of maize (Zea mays) AQPs shows that they comprise four different groups of highly divergent proteins. We have classified them as plasma membrane intinsic proteins (PIPs), tonoplast intrinsic proteins, Nod26-like intrinsic proteins, and small and basic intrinsic proteins. Amino acid sequence identities vary from 16% to 100%, but all sequences share structural motifs and conserved amino acids necessary to stabilize the two loops that form the aqueous pore. Most divergent are the small and basic integral proteins in which the first of the two highly conserved Asn-Pro-Ala motifs of the pore is not conserved, but is represented by alanine-proline-threonine or alanine-proline-serine. We present a model of ZmPIP1-2 based on the three-dimensional structure of mammalian AQP1. Tabulation of the number of times that the AQP sequences are found in a collection of databases that comprises about 470,000 maize cDNAs indicates that a few of the maize AQPs are very highly expressed and many are not abundantly expressed. The phylogenetic analysis supports the interpretation that the divergence of PIPs through gene duplication occurred more recently than the divergence of the members of the other three subfamilies. This study opens the way to analyze the function of the proteins in Xenopus laevis oocytes, determine the tissue specific expression of the genes, recover insertion mutants, and determine the in planta function.

adenocarcinoma of the prostate ͉ CD4ϩ and͞or CD8 ϩ T cell ͉ cytotoxic T cell ͉ antigen-presenting cell ͉ hormone therapy

The main purpose of urine cytology is to detect high-grade urothelial carcinoma (HGUC). With this principle in mind, The Paris System (TPS) Working Group, composed of cytopathologists, surgical pathologists, and urologists, has proposed and published a standardized reporting system that includes specific diagnostic categories and cytomorphologic criteria for the reliable diagnosis of HGUC. This paper outlines the essential elements of TPS and the process that led to the formation and rationale of the reporting system. The Paris System Working Group, organized at the 2013 International Congress of Cytology, conceived a standardized platform on which to base cytologic interpretation of urine samples. The widespread dissemination of this approach to cytologic examination and reporting of urologic samples and the scheme's universal acceptance by pathologists and urologists is critical for its success. For urologists, understanding the diagnostic criteria, their clinical implications, and the limitations of TPS is essential if they are to utilize urine cytology and noninvasive ancillary tests in a thoughtful and practical manner. This is the first international/inclusive attempt at standardizing urinary cytology. The success of TPS will depend on the pathology and urology communities working collectively to improve this seminal paradigm shift, and optimize the impact on patient care.

Objective  To determine the effect of repeated and prolonged vaginal distension on the leak‐point pressure (LPP) and urethral anatomy in the female rat, as prolonged vaginal distension has been clinically correlated with signs of stress urinary incontinence (SUI). Materials and methods  Sixty female rats were placed into one of five groups; four groups underwent one of four vaginal distension protocols using a modified 10 F Foley catheter, i.e. prolonged (1 h), brief (0.5 h), intermittent (cycling inflated/deflated for 0.5 h) or sham distension. All animals had a suprapubic bladder catheter implanted 2 days after and were assessed urodynamically 4 days after vaginal distension. The fifth group of rats acted as controls and did not undergo vaginal distension, but did have a suprapubic bladder catheter placed and urodynamics assessed. To measure LPP the rats were anaesthetized with urethane, placed supine and the bladder filled with saline (5 mL/h) while bladder pressure was measured via the bladder catheter. LPPs were measured three times in each animal by manually increasing the abdominal pressure until leakage at the urethral meatus, when the external abdominal pressure was rapidly released. Peak bladder pressure was taken as the LPP and a mean value calculated for each animal. Immediately after measuring LPP the urethra was removed and processed routinely for histology (5 µm sections, stained with haematoxylin/eosin and trichrome). The means ( sem ) were compared using a Kruskal–Wallis one‐way anova on ranks, followed by a Dunn's test, with P  < 0.05 indicating a significant difference. Results  Both LPP and the external increase in abdominal pressure were significantly lower after prolonged distension, at 31.4 (1.7) and 19.8 (1.2) cmH 2 O, than in the sham group, at 41.1 (3.2) and 32.0 (4.7) cmH 2 O, respectively. There were no significant differences in LPP or in the increase in abdominal pressure between the brief, intermittent and sham groups. Qualitative histology showed that prolonged distension resulted in extensive disruption and marked thinning of urethral skeletal muscle fibres. Brief and intermittent distension showed mild and focal disruptions, respectively. Conclusions  As observed clinically, prolonged vaginal distension results in a lower LPP, greater anatomical injury and increased severity of SUI. These results suggest that ischaemia is important in the development of SUI after prolonged vaginal distension.

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The muscularis mucosae (MM) and muscularis propria (MP) are important landmarks for pathologic tumor (pT) staging of urinary bladder cancer, which is the quintessential prognostic factor. In our routine practice, we have occasionally noted patterns of MM, which do not always conform to the originally described configuration of thin slender bundles arranged in a single layer of interrupted, dispersed, or continuous muscle. We evaluated the lamina propria (LP), MM, and MP characteristics in 35 urinary bladder resection specimens with systematic sampling from the dome, trigone, anterior, posterior, right, and left lateral walls. Among the subsites, the trigone had a relatively flatter surface and attenuated LP depth (0.46 to 1.58 mm), about half of the thickest region which was the dome (0.98 to 3.07 mm). The MM was typically in individual or small groups of slender and wavy fascicles or wispy fibers. MM also had focal to rarely extensive hyperplastic appearance (53%, most common in dome) with 2 recognizable patterns: (a) aggregates of hyperplastic MM with haphazard outlines (33%) distinct from that of MP, and (b) hyperplastic compact MM with parallel muscle fibers and regular outline arranged singly or in small groups (45%) that occasionally strongly resembled MP muscle but distinguishable from it on the basis of the location in the LP. By distribution, these muscle bundles were more typically dispersed or formed a discernable layer (41%) as discontinuous or infrequently near-continuous layer. The LP vascular plexus was present in every section most often in association with the MM muscle; however, variations in the distribution were observed. The MP most commonly had a relatively regular interface with the LP. A distinctive pattern was noted in the trigone where occasionally there was gradual diminution of size of the MP muscle bundles as they extended to almost a suburothelial location. In 22%, isolated or small groups of compact regular hyperplastic MM muscle bundles were noted in deep LP situated between the more typical slender MM layer and the MP. In conclusion, there are additional patterns of MM other than previously described. Awareness of the occasionally hyperplastic appearance of MM muscle is important to prevent overstaging of invasive urothelial carcinoma. In transurethral resection specimens, lack of orientation may preclude distinction of the hyperplastic MM from true MP in these rare situations. The number and orientation of muscle bundles, relationship to urothelium and vascular plexus, and comparison with more characteristic MP, if present, would be helpful; isolated bundles immediately adjacent to the urothelium with loose haphazard fiber orientation and irregular outlines favor MM over MP muscle. The hyperplastic MM mimicking MP may be more challenging; isolated muscle bundles immediately adjacent to the urothelium would favor hyperplastic pattern of MM over MP muscle. Topographical variations exist among the subsites, the more superficial location of the MP and the rarity of MM in the trigone,...

BACKGROUND:In urine cytology, the diagnosis of atypia is subjective and clinical management based on these results can be difficult to determine. In this study, the authors determined the percentage of atypical urine diagnoses that progressed to positive cytology or surgical pathology results over an 11-year period. METHODS: In a retrospective review of the authors' institution, 1320 atypical urine cytology diagnoses were identified in specimens from 851 patients obtained from January 2000 through December 2010. All subsequent pathology reports were reviewed to determine which patients developed positive cytology/surgical pathology diagnoses. In total, 4106 cytology and surgical pathology specimen reports were reviewed. RESULTS: At the authors' institution, 1320 of 16,299 of urine cytology specimens (8.1%) were diagnosed as atypical during the 11-year period. Overall, 271 of 1320 initial atypical urine specimens (21%) progressed to positive cytology or surgical pathology results with a mean time to progression of 155 days. Of the cases that progressed to malignancy, 118 were high-grade urothelial carcinoma and 92 were low-grade urothelial carcinoma. CONCLUSIONS: The rate of atypia in urine specimens at this institution was 8.1%. Of the specimen types, atypia was the most common in urinary diversion specimens (16%) and the least common in upper tract cytology (3.8%). When diagnosed as atypical, upper tract specimens had the highest percentage of progression to high-grade carcinoma. Therefore, the authors concluded that the diagnosis of atypia in this specimen group has higher clinical significance and should be managed more aggressively. Cancer (Cancer Cytopathol) 2013;121:387-91.