Volunteer involvement in biological surveys is becoming common in conservation and ecology, prompting questions on the quality of data collected in such surveys. In a systematic review of the peer-reviewed literature on the quality of data collected by volunteers, we examined the characteristics of volunteers (e.g., age, prior knowledge) and projects (e.g., systematic vs. opportunistic monitoring schemes) that affect data quality with regards to standardization of sampling, accuracy and precision of data collection, spatial and temporal representation of data, and sample size. Most studies (70%, n = 71) focused on the act of data collection. The majority of assessments of volunteer characteristics (58%, n = 93) examined the effect of prior knowledge and experience on quality of the data collected, often by comparing volunteers with experts or professionals, who were usually assumed to collect higher quality data. However, when both groups' data were compared with the same accuracy standard, professional data were more accurate in only 4 of 7 cases. The few studies that measured precision of volunteer and professional data did not conclusively show that professional data were less variable than volunteer data. To improve data quality, studies recommended changes to survey protocols, volunteer training, statistical analyses, and project structure (e.g., volunteer recruitment and retention).

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The genetic basis of traits that are under sexual selection and that are involved in recognizing conspecific mates is poorly known, even in systems in which the phenotypic basis of these traits has been well studied. In the present study, we investigate genetic and environmental influences on nuptial colour, which plays important roles in sexual selection and sexual isolation in species pairs of limnetic and benthic threespine sticklebacks (Gasterosteus aculeatus species complex). Previous work demonstrated that colour differences among species correlate to differences in the ambient light prevalent in their mating habitat. Red fish are found in clear water and black fish in red-shifted habitats. We used a paternal half-sib split-clutch design to investigate the genetic and environmental basis of nuptial colour. We found genetic differences between a red and a black stickleback population in the expression of both red and black nuptial colour. In addition, the light environment influenced colour expression, and genotype by environment interactions were also present. We found evidence for both phenotypic and genetic correlations between our colour traits; some of these correlations are in opposite directions for our red and black populations. These results suggest that both genetic change and phenotypic plasticity underlie the correlation of male colour with light environment.

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Members of the public are the foundation and the backbone of citizen science, but much remains unknown about how the public views citizen science. We conducted a survey of public familiarity with, and perceptions of, citizen science. We found that less than half of respondents were familiar with the term "citizen science," but over 70% were familiar with the concept by another name. Most respondents were more confident in hypothetical citizen science findings when professional scientists were involved to some degree, compared to situations in which only citizen scientists were involved. Confidence in citizen science findings tended to increase with age, despite the fact that self-confidence in respondents' own abilities to perform citizen science tasks decreased with age. Fewer than half of respondents (31-47%), and more men than women, were confident in their own ability to perform science process tasks, with the exception of collecting data (53% confident), and only slightly more predicted they would enjoy such activities. Based on our findings, we suggest ways in which leaders of citizen science projects can better promote recruitment, retention, and engagement on the part of volunteers and the public as a whole.

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Citizen science has the potential to provide participants with information about conservation issues and to encourage additional conservation actions. In this case study, we describe the current state of conservation education among butterfly citizen science projects in the United States. To determine the extent to which these citizen science projects are promoting an understanding of, and engagement in, conservation among their participants, we used an online questionnaire to census project leaders and assessed their websites for the presence of educational conservation information. We found that the majority (91%, n = 22) of butterfly citizen science projects in the United States include a conservation focus, and that they are educating their participants about key conservation threats and action strategies. Many are also using personal appeals, behavioral incentives, and the social interactions among participants to encourage their participants to engage in butterfly conservation outside the project. We found room for improvement on educating participants, especially about indirect conservation opportunities such as financial donations and outreach activities. We also suggest more widespread and effective use of project websites to disseminate conservation information.Keywords: conservation education; pro-environmental behavior; public participation in scientific research; engagement IntroductionCitizen science is an increasingly common conservation tool, with participants playing a key role in biological monitoring (e.g., Devictor et al. 2010;Dickinson et al. 2012). However, nature-based citizen science has the potential to play an even larger role in conservation by educating and encouraging participants to engage in conservation activities outside of their citizen science projects. Many citizen science programs study or directly address conservation concerns, making conservation education and the promotion of conservation actions a natural part of training and educating participants.Volunteer participants can play a number of roles in citizen science, ranging from data collectors to project creators and administrators, depending on both the project and the individual (Bonney et al. 2009). Here, we primarily focus on the education and engagement of volunteers outside the project leadership structure, such as those who collect and report data. Figure 1 depicts the ways that nature-based citizen science projects can influence their volunteers' transitions from participating in citizen science (left box) to engaging in conservation actions outside the project (right box). First, volunteers can interact with a project in three key ways (left box). For many volunteers, the primary interaction with their citizen science project is through collecting and submitting data. Additionally, many projects offer initial or periodic training events, either in person or via print and online materials. Projects also can provide their volunteers with educational content that is not strictly related to data collection or train...