The detailed degree of mixing between framework Si and metal cations and the nature of oxygen that only links metal cations (metal-bridging oxygen) in archetypal metal oxide glasses have been among the unsolved problems in physical chemistry. Binary lead silicate (PbO-SiO2) glass is an ideal model system for exploring the extent of cation disorder and metal-bridging oxygen because of its peculiar glass-forming ability at high PbO concentration. Here we report the first high-resolution 17O solid-state NMR spectra for binary lead silicate glasses with varying composition (near that of orthosilicate, i.e., Pb/Si = 2), where peaks due to metal-bridging oxygen (Pb-O-Pb), as well as Pb-O-Si and Si-O-Si are clearly resolved. The spectra also reveals that the metal-bridging oxygen possesses a greater topological disorder due to structural complexity in Pb coordination environments. Together with a statistical thermodynamic model of oxygen speciation proposed to describe mixing behavior in oxide glasses with any oxygen coordination number, the current 17O NMR results allow direct quantification of the degree of Pb/Si disorder and estimation of relative energy difference among the oxygen clusters [Pb-O-Pb + Si-O-Si = 2(Pb-O-Si)] of ∼−6 kJ/mol. This corresponds to a degree of mixing (Q) between Pb and network Si of ∼0.9, which implies that it deviates from random distribution (Q = 0) but shows a tendency toward Pb/Si order (Q = 1) that favors the formation of the Pb-O-Si cluster. The calculated configurational enthalpy of lead silicate glasses based on 17O NMR data showed a negative deviation and is consistent with those estimated from experimental solution calorimetry, unveiling atomistic origins of bulk macroscopic properties in the amorphous oxide. The results and methods shed light on a unique opportunity to explore the nature of intermixing and topological disorder in diverse complex amorphous oxides with varying cation types and oxygen coordination numbers by estimating the exact proportion of metal-bridging oxygen.

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The 660-kilometre seismic discontinuity is the boundary between the Earth’s lower mantle and transition zone and is commonly interpreted as being due to the dissociation of ringwoodite to bridgmanite plus ferropericlase (post-spinel transition)1–3. A distinct feature of the 660-kilometre discontinuity is its depression to 750 kilometres beneath subduction zones4–10. However, in situ X-ray diffraction studies using multi-anvil techniques have demonstrated negative but gentle Clapeyron slopes (that is,  the ratio between pressure and temperature changes) of the post-spinel transition that do not allow a significant depression11–13. On the other hand, conventional high-pressure experiments face difficulties in accurate phase identification due to inevitable pressure changes during heating and the persistent presence of metastable phases1,3. Here we determine the post-spinel and akimotoite–bridgmanite transition boundaries by multi-anvil experiments using in situ X-ray diffraction, with the boundaries strictly based on the definition of phase equilibrium. The post-spinel boundary has almost no temperature dependence, whereas the akimotoite–bridgmanite transition has a very steep negative boundary slope at temperatures lower than ambient mantle geotherms. The large depressions of the 660-kilometre discontinuity in cold subduction zones are thus interpreted as the akimotoite–bridgmanite transition. The steep negative boundary of the akimotoite–bridgmanite transition will cause slab stagnation (a stalling of the slab’s descent) due to significant upward buoyancy14,15.

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We have developed a high-pressure furnace assembly with a commercially available chemical-vapor-deposition synthesized boron-doped diamond heater consisting of four strips for large-volume multi-anvil presses (LVPs). This assembly successfully generated temperatures up to 2990 K at 15 GPa. It also has highly reproducible power–temperature relations, enabling us to estimate temperature from power reliably. It can be used for experiments above 9 GPa and is particularly useful for synchrotron x-ray experiments because of the x-ray transparency. It is also competitive in price. This technique is, thus, practical in various LVP experiments in the diamond-stability field.

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