Some neurons (delay cells) in the prefrontal cortex elevate their activities throughout the time period during which the animal is required to remember past events and prepare future behavior, suggesting that working memory is mediated by continuous neural activity. It is unknown, however, how working memory is represented within a population of prefrontal cortical neurons. We recorded from neuronal ensembles in the prefrontal cortex as rats learned a new delayed alternation task. Ensemble activities changed in parallel with behavioral learning so that they increasingly allowed correct decoding of previous and future goal choices. In well-trained rats, considerable decoding was possible based on only a few neurons and after removing continuously active delay cells. These results show that neural activity in the prefrontal cortex changes dynamically during new task learning so that working memory is robustly represented and that working memory can be mediated by sequential activation of different neural populations.

In order to investigate whether and how medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) of the rat is involved in processing of information related to fear conditioning, we recorded from single units in the prelimbic and infralimbic cortex of fear-conditioned rats in response to an explicit conditional stimulus (CS; an auditory tone) or contextual cues (conditioning box). The majority of units changed their activities significantly in response to the CS in a delay or trace conditioning paradigm. Both transient and tonic activity changes, including delay cell activity, were observed as in other behavioral tasks. When exposed to the context without CS delivery, most units changed their activities as well. These results show that both tone and contextual information are processed in the rat mPFC in expectation of the delivery of an aversive stimulus (electric foot shock). Interestingly, fast spiking cells (putative inhibitory interneurons) and regular spiking cells (putative projection neurons) showed different patterns of responses. Fast spiking cells tended to show transient responses and increased their firing rates following CS presentation, whereas a complementary pattern was observed in the regular spiking cells. Our results enhance our understanding of the neural mechanisms underlying prediction of an aversive stimulus in the mPFC.

Current thinking about how memories are stored in the brain has been profoundly influenced by Donald O. Hebb's cell assembly hypothesis, which posits that (1) learning produces a stable alteration in patterns of connectivity among repeatedly coactivated neurons, and (2) memory retrieval involves reactivation of those altered patterns of connectivity. However, learning-induced changes in connectivity that persist over long periods of time have not been clearly demonstrated. In the present study, two spatial navigation tasks and a long-term ensemble recording technique are used to describe long-lasting modifications in functional connectivity (FC) (defined as changes in synchronous firing) of prefrontal cortical neurons in behaving rats. Animals were initially trained to alternate visiting two spatial locations on a figure-8-shaped maze to obtain a reward (alternating task 1). Afterward, while continuing on task 1, animals were additionally trained to visit only one spatial location on the same maze to obtain a reward (unilateral task 2). Multiple single units were recorded while rats were undergoing acquisition, retention, and performance of both tasks. Our data indicate that correlated firing of prefrontal cortical neurons changed significantly in early phases of training when learning rate was maximal but became progressively smaller in later phases when learning reached asymptote. After animals became proficient, FC remained constant, although neuronal activities varied across two different tasks. The present finding of negatively accelerated changes in FC confirms associative learning theories and provides crucial neurophysiological evidence for Hebb's hypothesis.

In a dynamic environment, animals need to update information about the rewards expected from their alternative actions continually to make optimal choices for its survival. Because the reward resulting from a given action can be substantially delayed, the process of linking a reward to its causative action would be facilitated by memory signals related to the animal's previous actions. Although the ventral striatum has been proposed to play a key role in updating the information about the rewards expected from specific actions, it is not known whether the signals related to previous actions exist in the ventral striatum. In the present study, we recorded neuronal ensemble activity in the rat ventral striatum during a visual discrimination task and investigated whether neuronal activity in the ventral striatum encoded signals related to animal's previous actions. The results show that many neurons modulated their activity according to the animal's goal choice in the previous trial, indicating that memory signals for previous actions are available in the ventral striatum. In contrast, few neurons conveyed signals on impending goal choice of the animal, suggesting the absence of decision signals in the ventral striatum. Memory signals for previous actions might contribute to the process of updating the estimates of rewards expected from alternative actions in the ventral striatum.

Encounters with stimuli associated with drug use are believed to contribute to relapse. To probe the neurobiology of environmentally triggered drug use, we have conducted single-unit recordings in rhesus monkeys during presentation of two distinct types of drug paired cues that differentially support drug-seeking. The animals were highly conditioned to these cues via exposure during self-administration procedures conducted over a 4 year period. The cues studied were a discriminative cue that signaled response-contingent availability of cocaine, and a discrete cue that was temporally paired with the cocaine infusion (0.1 or 0.5 mg/kg). Two cortical regions consistently activated by cocaine-associated cues in human imaging studies are the orbitofrontal (OFC) and anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), though little is known about cortical neuronal activity responses to drug cues. We simultaneously recorded single-unit activity in OFC and ACC as well as in dorsal striatum in rhesus monkeys during cocaine self-administration. Dorsal striatal neurons were less engaged by drug cues than cortical regions. Between OFC and ACC, distinct functionality was apparent in neuronal responses. OFC neurons preferentially responded to the discriminative cue, consistent with a role in cue-induced drug-seeking. In contrast, the ACC did not respond more to the discriminative cue than to the discrete cue. Also distinct from the OFC, ACC showed sustained firing throughout the 18 s duration of the discrete cue. This pattern of sustained activation in ACC is consistent with a role in reward expectation and/or in mediating behavioral effects of discrete cues paired with drug infusions.

To obtain evidence linking long-term potentiation (LTP) and memory, we examined whether LTP induction modifies functional relationship among neurons in the rat hippocampus. In contrast to neurons in low-frequency stimulated or AP5-treated slices, LTP induction altered 'functional connectivity,' as defined by the degree of synchronous firing, among simultaneously recorded neurons in the CA3 region. Interestingly, functional connectivity changed bidirectionally so that the total sum of functional connectivity remained constant. These results demonstrate LTP-induced changes in neuronal functional connectivity and suggest the existence of a normalization mechanism for the total sum of functional connectivity.Over 50 years ago, Donald Hebb (1949) proposed that synaptic weight enhancement induced by conjoint activation of connected neurons can lead to the formation of a new functional assembly. Subsequent theoretical studies have confirmed that associative memories (i.e., functional assemblies) can be stored in a network of interconnected neurons on the basis of the Hebbian learning rule (Marr

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We have shown previously that stimulus-induced modulation of noise correlation in rat somatosensory cortex conveys additional information about the delivery of tactile stimulation. Here we investigated whether noise correlation is also modulated by an external sensory stimulus in rat prefrontal cortex and, if so, whether such modulation conveys additional information on stimulus delivery. Noise correlation was significantly reduced after the onset of a conditional stimulus (auditory tone) that signaled an electric foot shock in the prefrontal cortex. However, noise correlation contributed little to the transmission of information on stimulus delivery. These results indicate that a meaningful sensory stimulus reduces noise correlation in rat prefrontal cortex, but such modulation does not play a significant role in conveying information on stimulus delivery.