Typically, energy consuming systems are run off the traditional grid. However, there are remote areas of the United States that don’t have access to the traditional grid and in those places, there is a need for photovoltaic generation to supply those electricity needs [1].The use of photovoltaics along with lithium batteries for storing excess energy has increased due to the need for renewable energy as a viable source of electricity. Such energy storage systems (ESS) are useful for complex irrigation systems that assist in the cultivating of the United States food supply [2]. Without the ESS systems, maintaining a stable economy may be difficult in extreme cases. The object of this research will be to construct a virtual photovoltaic generation system that is capable of powering an irrigation system, and it will also be used in tandem with a lithium-ion battery storage system. The focus of this irrigation system will be to water a tomato farm in the Florida climate. The work will be performed in a virtual environment using a modular approach to a system-level design that simulates the behavior of the photovoltaic system and the degradation of the lithium-ion battery pack. Ultimately, these results suggest the necessary components for a real photovoltaic and battery operated system require the optimally sized photovoltaic panel and inverter connected to a watering pump. The PV panels convert solar energy to electrical energy with DC current and the inverter converts DC current to AC current required to run the pump. In addition, Additional information from hygrometer readings and weather profile also would be needed with a optimizing algorithm to ensure efficient irrigation operation. Acknowledgment This work was supported by the FREEDM ERC program of the National Science Foundation under award number EEC-08212121. References Louy Qoaider, Dieter Steinbrecht, Photovoltaic systems: A cost competitive option to supply energy to off-grid agricultural communities in arid regions, Applied Energy, Volume 87, Issue 2, February 2010, Pages 427-435, ISSN 0306-2619 M. Arifujjaman, A comprehensive power loss, efficiency, reliability and cost calculation of a 1 MW/500 kWh battery based energy storage system for frequency regulation application, Figure 1
The use of storage devices to support grid functions is seen as a viable option to meet an increasing electricity demand. Simulations performed will provide a look into the sustainability and life of a lithium-ion battery in continuous operation that can be used to support on-grid services. Specifically, COMSOL Multiphysics will be used to model a lithium manganese oxide battery and illustrate the capacity fade, solid-electrolyte interphase (SEI) formation leading to potential drop and electrolyte potential drop in the battery. These simulations will provide insight into continuous cycling phenomena of charging and discharging a battery.
Multiple electrodes for standard electrochemical measurements can provide appropriate results depending on the system. Two electrode measurements are common in such systems where the interactions between the anode and the cathode are of interest, such as in batteries. It is beneficial to understand the capability of three electrode measurements, since this configuration can provide accurate data on a single electrode of interest with respect to a third reference electrode in any system, like in aqueous solution. The cyclic voltammetry (CV) measurements were performed by the Solartron 1287 at a scan rate of 50 mV/s on a system where a platinum metal counter electrode and a Teflon rod with a circular, planar glassy carbon surface working electrode were immersed in a solution of 0.5 M sodium sulfate (Na2SO4). The EIS measurements were performed by the VersaStat 4 potentiostat on an identical system. The two electrode CV in Figure 1 show various potentials where anodic and cathodic peaks occur, indicating the presence of oxidation and reduction reactions [1]. The fact that there appears to be two peaks on the voltammogram at about -0.4 V during the forward scan and -0.5 V during the reverse scan suggests that this process is reversible or quasi-reversible [2]. For comparison, a third electrode, a silver/silver chloride (Ag/AgCl) reference electrode, is introduced to the system and a CV is performed, with the results shown in Figure 2. During the forward scan, the peak at -0.4 V in Figure 1 is hardly visible in the Figure 2 measurement, potentially indicating that there is no significant reaction at the working electrode, although it must be considered that the peak in Figure 1 is a much smaller current density scale. The -0.5 V peak on the reverse scan remains, albeit resulting in a different current density. Hence, a possible conclusion can be made in that a change in the rate of reaction at the working electrode is present. The EIS measurements in Figure 3 show the comparison of the impedance of two different electrodes using a three electrode system. The impedance measurements were performed using the same electrode setup that was used in the three electrode CV measurements. As expected, the impedance of the carbon electrode was much greater than that of the platinum electrode across the spectrum, especially away from the high frequency end. Acknowledgment This work was supported by the FREEDM ERC program of the National Science Foundation under award number EEC-08212121. References 1. Linden, David, and Thomas B. Reddy. Handbook of Batteries. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. Print 2. Jan C. Myland, Keith B. Oldham. Quasi-reversible Cyclic voltammetry of a surface confined redox system: a mathematical treatment. Ont. Canada. 2005
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