2 investigations of early imitative ability were conducted with cross-sectional samples of infants between 4 and 21 weeks. Study 1 involved 2 rounds of modeling 5 gestures to infants. In Study 2, the number of modeled gestures was reduced to 3, but each one was modeled many more times--for the duration of the infant's attention over a 3-min period. When frequencies of reproduction of a modeled act were compared against baseline frequencies and against average frequencies of the act during periods when other actions were modeled, several main results were obtained. First, the most general finding was that imitative-like matching of modeled gestures was the exception, not the rule, at all ages. Second, even where significantly greater frequencies of a gesture occurred during modeling than during control periods, it was always a partial and incomplete version of the modeled act that was reproduced, not a well-formed copy of the adult's gesture. Finally, where results were consistent with an interpretation of imitation, as with responses to tongue protrusion modeling, the effect was restricted to the youngest ages: 4-6 weeks. Given the restricted evidence for imitation, and the fact that neither linear nor curvilinear growth trends were apparent, the most appropriate explanation for the reproduction of tongue protrusions at the youngest age is to be sought in terms of a reflexive or fixed action pattern type of response.
Deferred imitation of object-related actions was studied at two ages, 12 and 18 months, in order to examine the development of competence in observational learning. Three task categories were investigated: simple/single actions, reiterative actions, and sequentially coordinated actions. At 12 months, evidence for deferred imitation was present for the simple/single actions. It was also true that when the simple/single action component was isolated in the more complex tasks and its achievement scored, deferred imitation was determinable for additional actions. At 18 months, improvements occurred in observational learning for all three task categories. However, even at 18 months, serial and sequential coordinations were accomplished by fewer than half of the children who had observed actions with these properties. Examination of partial successes at both ages was useful for suggesting phases in the information sequence in which encoding was probably inadequate, and in which action schemes were probably insufficiently differentiated for the children to fully profit from modeling.The central place occupied by imitation and its companion process, observational learning, in the day-to-day functioning of human beings has been long recognized (Bandura, 1971;Bruner, 1972;Guillaume, 1971;Piaget, /1962. As with all fundamental concepts, imitation has been given varied meanings, and its specific functions in human life continues to be a matter for discussion (Miller & Dollard, 1941;Piaget, /1962Uzgiris, 1979). Nevertheless, two broad functions are widely acknowledged:The first involves the use of observation and imitation as a means of acquiring new actions, the second deals with the facilitation or enactment of familiar, already acquired actions in particular space/time contexts by virtue of the modeling of others. From a developmental perspective, the first function is linked to questions regarding the nature, speed, and range of new acquisitions that rely on observ-We wish to thank Ann D. Sigafoos for her generous assistance in videorecording the experimental sessions.
The early phase of imitation was studied in children between 6 and 18 months by means of the presentations of 22 actions. Comparison groups were used to assess spontaneous production of actions modeled for the treatment samples. Aanalyses yielded 4 clusters of actions, with 1 cluster showing age and treatment versus comparison group effects and others failing to show both these effects. An important factor affecting imitation was the presence of objects. Actions with objects were imitated more than actions without objects. Measures of attention were found to correlate with imitation level, wheras latency was inversely related to imitation. The presence of sound as a variable that potentially influences imitation was studied, but results were inconclusive. Moreover, imitation and object concept performance were unrelated when the factor of age was controlled.
2 investigations of early imitative ability were conducted with cross-sectional samples of infants between 4 and 21 weeks. Study 1 involved 2 rounds of modeling 5 gestures to infants. In Study 2, the number of modeled gestures was reduced to 3, but each one was modeled many more times--for the duration of the infant's attention over a 3-min period. When frequencies of reproduction of a modeled act were compared against baseline frequencies and against average frequencies of the act during periods when other actions were modeled, several main results were obtained. First, the most general finding was that imitative-like matching of modeled gestures was the exception, not the rule, at all ages. Second, even where significantly greater frequencies of a gesture occurred during modeling than during control periods, it was always a partial and incomplete version of the modeled act that was reproduced, not a well-formed copy of the adult's gesture. Finally, where results were consistent with an interpretation of imitation, as with responses to tongue protrusion modeling, the effect was restricted to the youngest ages: 4-6 weeks. Given the restricted evidence for imitation, and the fact that neither linear nor curvilinear growth trends were apparent, the most appropriate explanation for the reproduction of tongue protrusions at the youngest age is to be sought in terms of a reflexive or fixed action pattern type of response.
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