The aim of this study was to determine the chronobiological variations of cytokines (IFN-γ, TGF-β) and hormones (melatonin and cortisol). The sample was collected from 42 mothers at three stages of maturity-day 3 (colostrum), day 10 (transitional milk) and day 30 (mature milk) postpartum, at two times of day: diurnal (12:00 h) and nocturnal (24:00 h), resulting a total of 252 samples. Melatonin concentration was increased in the nocturnal period from all milk maturation stages. This hormone concentration was lower in the mature milk. Cortisol concentration was higher in the mature milk during the diurnal period and it was lower in the nocturnal period when compared to colostrum and transitional milk. IFN-γ concentration did not vary between all periods. The transitional milk displayed higher concentrations of this cytokine in the nocturnal period whereas the concentration of IFN-γ decreased in the nocturnal period from the mature milk. When comparing the types of milk, it was observed lower concentrations of IFN-γ in mature milk in both periods. No significant variation in TGF-β concentration was detected between types of milk or at either time of day. These data support the hypothesis that there is a fluctuation in the production of hormone and cytokines and this leads to a need that adequate time of breastfeeding being crucial to ensure passive transfer of immunity, as well as for establishment of synchronization of newborn

The aim of this study was to evaluate the changes in minerals, antibodies, complement and cytokine levels in the human milk of hypertensive women based on the time of collection (diurnal/nocturnal) and the type of milk. The material was collected from 23 mothers at three stages of maturity: 3 days (colostrum), 10 days (transitional milk) and 30 days (mature milk) postpartum -and at two times -diurnal (12:00 h) and nocturnal (24:00 h) -resulting in a total of 138 samples. The minerals, antibody, complement, IFN-γ and TGF-β cytokine levels were determined. Increases in sodium and potassium were observed independent of phase, while phosphorus was observed only during nocturnal period. IgA was higher in the transitional milk of hypertensive mothers in the nocturnal period. IgG was higher in the nocturnal period of hypertensive mothers regardless of milk maturation. The C3 protein increased during the diurnal period in the transitional and mature milk of hypertensive women. Milk concentrations of the cytokines IFN-γ and TGF-β were higher during the nocturnal period of hypertensive mothers. These data suggest that the milk of hypertensive mothers exhibits alterations proteins and inflammatory mediators, and these alterations are dependent on time and milk maturation.

Pre-natal glucocorticoids are used in women at risk of preterm delivery to induce foetal lung maturation. However, glucocorticoids can produce negative outcomes for other tissues such as the reproductive system. We therefore tested the effects of pre-natal betamethasone on testicular morphology and apoptotic protein immune expression during pre- and post-natal development. Pregnant ewes (n = 42) bearing singleton male foetuses were randomly allocated to receive intramuscular injections of saline or betamethasone (0. 5 mg/kg) at 104, 111 and 118 days of gestation (DG). Testes were collected at 121 and 132 DG, and at 45 and 90 post-natal days (PD) and subjected to morphometric analysis (volume densities of sex cords and interstitial tissues; sex cord diameter). Immunohistochemistry (% stained area) was used to assess active caspase-3, Bax, Bcl-2 and cell-cycle proteins (PCNA). Compared with control values, betamethasone treatment decreased sex cord diameter at 121 DG, 45 and 90 PD, and sex cord volume at 90 PD. Active caspase-3 was decreased by betamethasone at 121 DG and 90 PD, but Bax was increased in all betamethasone groups. Bcl-2 and PCNA decreased in the betamethasone groups at 121 DG and 45 PD, but increased at 132 DG and 90 PD. We conclude that high levels of pre-natally administered glucocorticoid reduce foetal testicular development, perhaps via changes in the balance between pro- and anti-apoptotic proteins and cell-cycle proteins. These outcomes could compromise the future spermatogenic potential of male offspring.

This study investigated the expression of the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) in maternal blood, cord blood and placental cells and determined IgG levels in maternal blood and cord blood from diabetic mothers. Peripheral blood, cord blood and placenta samples were collected from 26 mothers with normoglycaemia (non-diabetic, ND group) and 52 with hyperglycaemia (26 with mild gestational hyperglycaemia, MGH group, and 26 with type 2 diabetes mellitus, DM-2 group). Cells expressing CD19 + and FcRn were identified by flow cytometry. Total IgG and its subclasses were quantified by ELISA. Maternal blood from DM-2 and cord blood from MGH exhibited a higher proportion of CD19 + expression by B cells. DM-2 showed a lower proportion of CD19 + cells in placenta. FcRn expression increased in cells from cord blood and placenta from MGH. Maternal blood, cord blood and placenta cells from DM-2 showed lower FcRn expression. Blood IgG levels were lower in DM-2, and cord blood IgG levels were higher in MGH. The highest levels of IgG4 were detected in the blood of hyperglycaemic mothers. The highest IgG3 and IgG4 levels in cord blood were detected in MGH, and the lowest IgG2 and IgG3 levels in DM-2. Maternal hyperglycaemia compromised placental transfer of IgG1, IgG3 and IgG4. The results suggest that regardless of hyperglycaemia degree, it decreases FcRn expression in placenta and blood cells and compromises the production and transfer of antibodies from maternal blood to newborns.