The aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of three water immersion interventions performed after active recovery compared to active recovery only on physical and mental performance measures and physiological responses. The subjects were physically active men (age 20-35 years, mean ± SD 26 ± 3.7 years). All participants performed a short-term exercise protocol, including maximal jumps and sprinting. Four different recovery methods (10 minutes) were used in random order: cold water immersion (CWI, 10 ᵒC), thermoneutral water immersion (TWI, 24 ᵒC), contrast water therapy (CWT, alternately 10 ᵒC and 38 ᵒC). All of these methods were performed after an active recovery (10 minutes bicycle ergometer; heart rate 120-140 bpm, 60-73 % from age-calculated maximum heart rate), and the fourth method was active recovery (ACT) only. Within 96 hours after exercise bouts, recovery was assessed via a 30 m maximal sprint test, maximal countermovement jump (CMJ), self-perceived muscle soreness and relaxation questionnaires, blood lactate, creatine kinase, testosterone, cortisol and catecholamine levels. The selfperceived feeling of relaxation after 60 minutes recovery was better (p < 0.05) after CWI and CWT than ACT and TWI. Statistically significant differences were not observed between the recovery methods in any other marker. In the 30 m sprint test, however, slower running time was found in ACT (p < 0.001) and CWT (p = 0.005), and reduced CMJ results (p < 0.05) were found in ACT when the results were compared to baseline values. Based on these findings, it can be concluded that CWI and CWT improve the acute feeling of relaxation that can play a positive role in athletes' performance and well-being.

Background: Uncertainty remains whether ageing before late adulthood and menopause reduce fat-free mass and fat mass-adjusted resting energy expenditure (REEadj). We therefore investigated whether REEadj differs 1) between middle-aged and younger women and 2) in middle-age by menopause status. We repeated the age group comparison between middle-aged mothers and their daughters to partially control for genotype. We also explored whether oestradiol and follicle-stimulating hormone concentrations or body fat percentage explain REEadj in midlife. Methods: We divided 120 women, including 16 mother–daughter pairs, into age groups. Group I (n=26) consisted of participants aged 17-21, group II (n=35) aged 22–38 and group III (n=59) aged 41-58 years. Group III women were pre- or perimenopausal (n=19), postmenopausal (n=30) or postmenopausal hormone therapy users (n=10). REE was assessed using indirect calorimetry, body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and hormones using immunoassays. Results: Group I had 126 kcal/d (95% confidence interval [CI], 93–160; P<0.001) higher REEadj than group III, while group II had 88 kcal/d (CI, 49-127; P<0.001) higher REEadj. Furthermore, the daughters had 100 kcal/d (CI, 63-138; P<0.001) higher REEadj than their mothers. In group III, REEadj did not differ by menopause status, but body fat percentage was positively associated with REEadj (beta=0.39, P=0.003). Conclusions: We demonstrated that REE declines with age in women before late adulthood, even when controlling for body composition and partially for genetic background, and that menopause does not contribute to the decline in REEadj. Menopause-associated fat accumulation may actually elevate REEadj.

The aim of this study was to compare the efficacy of three water immersion interventions performed after active recovery compared to active recovery only on the resolution of inflammation and markers of muscle damage post-exercise. Methods Nine physically active men (n = 9; age 20-35 years) performed an intensive loading protocol, including maximal jumps and sprinting on four occasions. After each trial, one of three recovery interventions (10 min duration) was used in a random order: cold-water immersion (CWI, 10 °C), thermoneutral water immersion (TWI, 24 °C), contrast water therapy (CWT, alternately 10 °C and 38 °C). All of these methods were performed after an active recovery (10 min bicycle ergometer), and were compared to active recovery only (ACT). 5 min, 1, 24, 48, and 96 h after exercise bouts, immune response and recovery were assessed through leukocyte subsets, monocyte chemoattractant protein-1, myoglobin and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein concentrations. Results Significant changes in all blood markers occurred at post-loading (p < 0.05), but there were no significant differences observed in the recovery between methods. However, retrospective analysis revealed significant trial-order effects for myoglobin and neutrophils (p < 0.01). Only lymphocytes displayed satisfactory reliability in the exercise response, with intraclass correlation coefficient > 0.5. Conclusions The recovery methods did not affect the resolution of inflammatory and immune responses after high-intensity sprinting and jumping exercise. It is notable that the biomarker responses were variable within individuals. Thus, the lack of differences between recovery methods may have been influenced by the reliability of exercise-induced biomarker responses. Keywords Cold-water immersion • Thermoneutral water immersion • Contrast water therapy • Recovery • Inflammation Abbreviations ACT Active recovery only CK Creatine kinase activity COR Serum cortisol CWT Contrast water therapy CWI Cold-water immersion hsCRP High-sensitivity C-reactive protein MCP-1 Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 TWI Thermoneutral water immersion WBC Leukocytes

Context It remains uncertain whether aging before late adulthood and menopause are associated with fat-free mass and fat mass–adjusted resting energy expenditure (REEadj). Objectives We investigated whether REEadj differs between middle-aged and younger women and between middle-aged women with different menopausal statuses. We repeated the age group comparison between middle-aged mothers and their daughters to partially control for genotype. We also explored whether serum estradiol and follicle-stimulating hormone concentrations explain REEadj in midlife. Methods We divided 120 women, including 16 mother–daughter pairs, into age groups; group I (n=26) consisted of participants aged 17–21, group II (n=35) of those aged 22–38 and group III (n=59) of those aged 41–58 years. The women in group III were further categorized as pre- or perimenopausal (n=19), postmenopausal (n=30) or postmenopausal hormone therapy users (n=10). REE was assessed using indirect calorimetry, body composition using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry and hormones using immunoassays. Results The REEadj of group I was 126 kcal/d (95% CI: 93–160) higher than that of group III, and the REEadj of group II was 88 kcal/d (95% CI: 49–127) higher. Furthermore, daughters had a 100 kcal/d (95% CI: 63–138 kcal/d) higher REEadj than their middle-aged mothers (all P&lt;0.001). In group III, REEadj was not lower in postmenopausal women and did not vary by sex hormone concentrations. Conclusions We demonstrated that REEadj declines with age in women before late adulthood, also when controlling partially for genetic background, and that menopause may not contribute to this decline.

Purpose: The aim of this study was to investigate within-cycle differences in nocturnal heart rate (HR) and heart rate variability (HRV) in naturally menstruating women (NM) and women using combined hormonal contraceptives (CU) or progestin-only hormonal contraceptives (PU). Methods: Physically active participants were recruited into three groups: NM (n = 19), CU (n = 11), and PU (n = 12). Participants' HR and HRV (with Bodyguard 2 HRV monitor) and blood hormones were monitored during one menstrual cycle (MC) (NM group) or for 4 wk (CU and PU groups). Estradiol, progesterone, and luteinizing hormone were analyzed from fasting blood samples collected four times in the NM (M1 = bleeding, M2 = follicular phase, M3 = ovulation, and M4 = luteal phase) and PU groups (M1 = lowest E 2 , M2 = M1 + 7 d, M3 = M1 + 14 d, and M4 = M1 + 21 d) and twice in the CU group (active and inactive pill phases). After every blood sample, nightly HR and HRV were recorded and examined as an average from two nights. Results: Hormonal concentrations differed (P < 0.05) between MC phases in the NM and PU groups, but not (P ≥ 0.116) between the active and the inactive phases in the CU group. In the NM and PU groups, some of the HRV values were higher, whereas in the NM group, HR was lower during M2 compared with M3 (P < 0.049) and M4 (P < 0.035). In the CU group, HRV values (P = 0.014-0.038) were higher, and HR was lower (P = 0.038) in the inactive phase compared with the first week of the active phase. Conclusions: The MC and the hormonal cycle phases influence autonomic nervous system balance, which is reflected in measurements of nocturnal HR and HRV. This should be considered when monitoring recovery in physically active individuals.