Direct Geo-Referencing is a new technique in photogrammetry, especially in the aerial photogrammetry. Unlike the Aerial Triangulation "AT", this method does not require Ground Control Points "GCPs", to process aerial photographs into desired ground coordinates systems. Compared with the old method, this method has four main advantages: faster field work, faster data processing, simple workflow and less cost. Generally, direct georeferencing using two systems, Global Navigational Satellite Systems "GNSS" and Inertial Navigational System "INS". GNSS recording the camera coordinates "X, Y, Z", and INS recording the camera orientation angles "w, φ, k" at the time of exposure. These parameters merged and are provided to each photograph in the processing stage. The current paper investigates the using GNSS system for providing the linear exterior orientation "EO" parameters "X, Y, Z" by two techniques, real time kinematic "RTK" and virtual reference system "VRS". The accuracy of the applied method is tested on topographic survey project in Switzerland. The surveyed data of the specified project were collected by amateur digital camera Canon 18.2 MP, 182 captured images from approximately 85 m flight height, 18 Ground Check Point "GCP" determined by static GNSS. Horizontal accuracy is 0.029 m for VRS case, 0.034 m for RTK case and vertical accuracy is 0.026 m for VRS case, 0.029 for RTK case.
A baseline survey of macrobenthic fauna inhabiting shallow subtidal habitats was carried out around Huwar islands during two different cruises in May 2003. A total of 144 quadrats (0.25 m2), 48 subsurface seawater samples and replicate samples of sediments from 16 sites resulted in a collection of 119 species belonging to macrobenthos. Physicochemical parameters of the seawater namely depth (0.2 – 1.5 m), water temperature (28–32°C), pH (7.5–8.0), and dissolved oxygen (5.7–8.5 mg l−1) did not vary significantly between eastern and western shores. However, marked variation in salinity (46.5–54.5 ‰) and chlorophyll-a content of seawater (0.58–6.3 μ g l−1) were found. There was some indication that the eastern coast is more biologically diverse. Sediment organic content was slightly higher along the eastern coast. The substrate was typical of other areas around Bahrain and composed of sand, mud and harder encrustations. Grain size analysis indicated the dominance of fine to very fine sand fractions. Microbial indicators of seawater contamination were found in five of the sixteen sites and Enterococci were found at almost all sites with higher numbers recorded along the western coast. Similar results were found for Salmonella–Shigella counts. The total coliform count was over 100 Colony Forming Units with the exception of a few sites, and a considerable total vibrio count was also recorded. The island's coastal water was nevertheless considered relatively clean from pathogenic bacteria as compared to other areas around Bahrain. A monitoring of macrobenthos and pathogenic bacteria should be conducted in order to endure good water quality around Huwar. A survey of this sort requires dedicated time and resources in order to establish a monitoring program because of the fast rate in urban developments within this region.
DeceasedA selected set of indicators were highlighted based on the criteria of the UN-Gommissionfor Sustainable Development. Data were collected from the Gentral Information Organisation in Bahrain and relevant ministries and twenty measurable indicators were identified. The results of this study are divided into three main groups: the first included data on indicators that meet the definition laid down by the Gommission, such as: emission ofGO2, arable and permanent crop land area, annual withdrawals of groundwater and mortality rate of less than five years of age. The second group needed further extraction, formatting and interpretation and these included: use of fertilizers, annual catch by mafor species and protected area as percentage of total area. No adequate data was available for the third group of indicators. These included: coastal water quality, change in surface water discharge, and threatened plant species as percentage of total known plant species. The indicators used were those belonging to the first two groups. It is recommended that more environmental and sustainable development indicators for Bahrain should be established through supporting databases. This duty should be assigned lo a specified organization and/ or a national multiparty committee. A yearly book on the indicators should ideally be issued, revised and approved. Non-governmental agencies participation in setting up the indicators and data collecting is essential. Technological knowledge and tools such as Geographical Information System should be utilized in order to manage the environmental and sustainable development indicators.
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