This study examined how Asian American parents’ experiences of racial discrimination and internalized racism were associated with domains of racial–ethnic socialization (RES). The study sample consisted of 121 Asian American parents (M = 41.79 years, range = 26–65 years). Using structural equation modeling, a path analysis was conducted to examine whether internalized racism moderated the link between experiences of racial discrimination and RES strategies. Results suggested that racial discrimination was negatively associated with internalized racism (β = −.22, p < .05), but not specific domains of RES; however, internalized racism was significantly associated with the following RES domains: becoming American (β = −.25, p < .05), minimization of race (β = .31, p < .01), cultural pluralism (β = −.41, p < .001), and promotion of equality (β = −.40, p < .001). Significant interactions between racial discrimination and internalized racism emerged, such that parents who reported high levels of racial discrimination and high levels of internalized racism were less likely to convey messages that minimized or denied racism (+1 SD; β = −.36, p < .05) and parents who reported high levels of racial discrimination and low levels of internalized racism were more likely to convey messages that minimized or denied racism (−1 SD; β = .20, p < .05). No other significant interactions emerged for other aspects of RES. The present study underscores the importance of considering internalized racism—a consequence of exposure to racial discrimination—and the role it may have on how Asian Americans convey messages of race to their children.
Psychological research on sexual and gender minority (SGM) people of color has grown in recent years; however, little is still understood about the experiences of Asian American and Pacific Islander SGMs. The purpose of this chapter is to synthesize the current research that examines the intersections of the racial identity of Asian Americans and Pacific Islanders, SGM identity, and the mental health of Asian American and Pacific Islander SGMs. Historical contexts of attitudes toward SGMs in Asian and Pacific Island countries as well as in the United States are provided to contextualize the specific sociocultural issues faced by Asian American and Pacific Islander SGMs in the United States. The authors also discuss the role of specific Asian American and Pacific Islander cultural values such as gender norms, family values, and loss of face in the development and expression of SGM identity. This chapter also examines the unique mental health risks faced by Asian American and Pacific Islander SGMs through the lens of double minority stress. The authors conclude with recommendations for directions of future research.
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