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Criminological research has tended to consider employment in a dichotomy of employed versus unemployed. The current research examines a sample of individuals one-year post-release to assess the extent to which four distinct employment categories (full-time, part-time, disabled, and unemployed) are associated with reincarceration and days remaining in the community. Findings indicate disabled individuals remain in the community longer and at a higher proportion compared to other employment categories. Further, unique protective and risk factors are found to be associated with each employment category while some risk factors (e.g., homelessness) highlight the importance of addressing reentry barriers regardless as to employment status. While the positive impact of employment upon release for returning citizens 1 are rather undisputed, the particular way in which employment benefits individuals remains unclear. This may be due, in part to the varying operationalization of employment across research (Webster et al., 2007). Generally, research tends to consider employment in a dichotomy, comparing individuals who are employed to those who are unemployed. Two pressing issues arise from this dichotomy. First, there are likely distinct benefits between full-and part-time work and these two groups are not uniformly considered across research. Secondly, disabled individuals are often discounted in this dichotomy. Individuals reporting unemployment due to disability are removed from analysis, considered unemployed if operationalized as 'not 1 Throughout this article, positive reentry language is used. A focus on returning citizens, rather than use of the language "previously incarcerated" or "ex-offender" is preferred to avoid stigma and labeling effects. Language also reflects positive accomplishments such as "time remaining in the community" rather than the focus on reincarceration as the event. Further, focus is on protective factors, those that reduce the odds of reincarceration thereby increasing time in the community, as well as risk factors, those that increase the odds of reincarceration.

Use of novel psychoactive substances (NPS) such as synthetic cannabinoids (e.g., "Spice," "Serenity") and cathinones (e.g., "bath salts") has proliferated in recent years; however, there is a gap in research examining prevalence among offender samples. This study examined demographics, drug use, mental health characteristics, and criminal histories of NPS users compared to non-NPS users within an offender sample entering drug treatment. Using logistic regression analysis, combined 2013-2015 assessment data were examined (N = 8,791). NPS users offended more often (x̄ = 10.3), were more likely to have experienced homelessness (12.2%), and to have lived in a metro area (59.0%). NPS users reported significantly more past-year drug use, including substances not readily detected by standard urine analysis (e.g., hallucinogens, alcohol, and inhalants). Individuals with higher anxiety symptom counts (OR = 1.07; p < .001) and those who reported drinking to intoxication (OR = 1.30; p < .001) had an increased likelihood of NPS use. Older individuals (OR = 0.95; p < .001) and those who began using drugs at an older age (OR = 0.95; p < .001) were less likely to report NPS use. NPS use may be a marker of more severe using patterns in an offender sample. Future investigation should focus on NPS use as a possible method for bypassing drug testing measures.

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In response to the opioid epidemic, there have been several national- and state-level policies enacted. Consideration of how criminal justice–involved individuals are affected by such policies has received limited attention, despite disproportionately higher use among this population. Bivariate statistics examined yearly trends, and logistic regressions examined demographic correlates of nonmedical prescription opioid and heroin use among Kentucky inmates over an 8-year time span of important national and local policy changes ( N = 34,542). Results indicate that among incarcerated individuals, prior use of heroin increased 204% from 2008 to 2016, with increases possibly linked to key policy changes associated with OxyContin reformulation and state implementation of a prescription drug monitoring program. The current incarcerated population had more severe use patterns when considering general population research. Consideration of criminal justice–involved populations is crucial to understanding and treating the opioid epidemic.

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