During apoptosis, changes occur in lymphocyte membranes that render them susceptible to hydrolysis by secretory phospholipase A(2) (sPLA(2)). To study the relevant mechanisms, a simplified model of apoptosis using a calcium ionophore was applied. Kinetic and flow cytometry experiments provided key observations regarding ionophore treatment: the initial rate of hydrolysis was elevated at all enzyme concentrations, the total amount of reaction product was increased fourfold, and adsorption of the enzyme to the membrane surface was unaltered. Analysis of these results suggested that susceptibility during calcium-induced apoptosis is limited by availability of substrate rather than adsorption of enzyme. Fluorescence experiments identified three membrane alterations during apoptosis that might affect substrate access to the sPLA(2) active site. First, intercalation of merocyanine 540 into the membrane was improved, suggesting an increase in lipid spacing. Second, laurdan detected increased solvation of the lower headgroup region of the membrane. Third, the rate at which fluorescent lipids could be removed from the membrane by albumin was enhanced, implying greater vertical mobility of phospholipids. Thus, it is proposed that the membranes of apoptotic cells become susceptible to sPLA(2) through a reduction in lipid-neighbor interactions that facilitates migration of phospholipids into the enzyme active site.

Some isoforms of secretory phospholipase A 2 (sPLA 2 ) distinguish between healthy and damaged or apoptotic cells. This distinction reflects differences in membrane physical properties. Because various sPLA 2 isoforms respond differently to properties of artificial membranes such as surface charge, they should also behave differently as these properties evolve during a dynamic physiological process such as apoptosis. To test this idea, S49 lymphoma cell death was induced by glucocorticoid (6 -48 h) or calcium ionophore. Rates of membrane hydrolysis catalyzed by various concentrations of snake venom and human groups IIa, V, and X sPLA 2 were compared after each treatment condition. The data were analyzed using a model that evaluates the adsorption of enzyme to the membrane surface and subsequent binding of substrate to the active site. Results were compared temporally to changes in membrane biophysics and composition. Under control conditions, membrane hydrolysis was confined to the few unhealthy cells present in each sample. Increased hydrolysis during apoptosis and necrosis appeared to reflect substrate access to adsorbed enzyme for the snake venom and group X isoforms corresponding to weakened lipid-lipid interactions in the membrane. In contrast, apoptosis promoted initial adsorption of human groups V and IIa concurrent with phosphatidylserine exposure on the membrane surface. However, this observation was inadequate to explain the behavior of the groups V and IIa enzymes toward necrotic cells where hydrolysis was reduced or absent. Thus, a combination of changes in cell membrane properties during apoptosis and necrosis capacitates the cell for hydrolysis differently by each isoform.During programmed cell death, or apoptosis, a variety of changes occur in the plasma membrane of the cell. These include morphological alterations that emerge late in the process such as blebbing and increased permeability of the membrane. Earlier in the process, several more subtle membrane changes occur. The best studied is a loss of the normal asymmetrical transmembrane distribution of phospholipid species. Consequently, anionic lipids like phosphatidylserine, which are typically confined to the inner leaflet of the membrane, become exposed on the outer surface (1). In addition, studies with fluorescent membrane probes have revealed possible increases in fluidity and/or the spacing between lipid molecules that may precede or coincide with the loss of membrane asymmetry, depending on the cell type and mode of apoptosis (2-9). Recently, a latent increase in the order of membrane lipids has also been reported (9).A potential consequence of these events during apoptosis is enzymatic attack of the cell membrane by secretory phospholipase A 2 (sPLA 2 ).2 Ordinarily, healthy cells resist hydrolysis, but during apoptosis they become vulnerable to destruction by the enzyme (9 -11). Studies with snake venom phospholipase A 2 have identified possible ways by which this phenomenon relates to membrane physical properties (8,9,12). Prelimina...

Objective:Mitochondria-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) play important roles in the development of cardiovascular disease highlighting the need for novel targeted therapies. This study assessed the potential therapeutic benefit of combining the mitochondria-specific antioxidant, MitoQ10, with the low-dose angiotensin receptor blocker (ARB), losartan, on attenuation of hypertension and left ventricular hypertrophy. In parallel, we investigated the impact of MitoQ10 on cardiac hypertrophy in a neonatal cardiomyocyte cell line.Methods and results:Eight-week-old male stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRSPs, n = 8–11) were treated with low-dose losartan (2.5 mg/kg per day); MitoQ10 (500 μmol/l); a combination of MitoQ10 and losartan (M + L); or vehicle for 8 weeks. Systolic pressure and pulse pressure were significantly lower in M + L rats (167.1 ± 2.9 mmHg; 50.2 ± 2.05 mmHg) than in untreated SHRSP (206.6 ± 9 mmHg, P < 0.001; 63.7 ± 2.7 mmHg, P = 0.001) and demonstrated greater improvement than MitoQ10 or low-dose losartan alone, as measured by radiotelemetry. Left ventricular mass index was significantly reduced from 22.8 ± 0.74 to 20.1 ± 0.61 mg/mm in the combination group (P < 0.05). Picrosirius red staining showed significantly reduced cardiac fibrosis in M + L rats (0.82 ± 0.22 A.U.) compared with control (5.94 ± 1.35 A.U., P < 0.01). In H9c2 neonatal rat cardiomyocytes, MitoQ10 significantly inhibited angiotensin II mediated hypertrophy in a dose-dependent manner (500 nmol/l MitoQ10 153.7 ± 3.1 microns vs. angiotensin II 200.1 ± 3.6 microns, P < 0.001).Conclusion:Combining MitoQ10 and low-dose losartan provides additive therapeutic benefit, significantly attenuating development of hypertension and reducing left ventricular hypertrophy. In addition, MitoQ10 mediates a direct antihypertrophic effect on rat cardiomyocytes in vitro. MitoQ10 has potential as a novel therapeutic intervention in conjunction with current antihypertensive drugs.

BackgroundWe have previously described a panel of 238 urinary polypeptides specific for established severe coronary artery disease (CAD). Here we studied this polypeptide panel in patients with a wider range of CAD severity.MethodsWe recruited 60 patients who underwent elective coronary angiography for investigation of stable angina. Patients were selected for either having angiographic evidence of CAD or not (NCA) following coronary angiography (n = 30/30; age, 55 ± 6 vs. 56 ± 7 years, P = 0.539) to cover the extremes of the CAD spectrum. A further 66 patients with severe CAD (age, 64 ± 9 years) prior to surgical coronary revascularization were added for correlation studies. The Gensini score was calculated from coronary angiograms as a measure of CAD severity. Urinary proteomic analyses were performed using capillary electrophoresis coupled online to micro time-of-flight mass spectrometry. The urinary polypeptide pattern was classified using a predefined algorithm and resulting in the CAD238 score, which expresses the pattern quantitatively.ResultsIn the whole cohort of patients with CAD (Gensini score 60 [40; 98]) we found a close correlation between Gensini scores and CAD238 (ρ = 0.465, P < 0.001). After adjustment for age (β = 0.144; P = 0.135) the CAD238 score remained a significant predictor of the Gensini score (β =0.418; P < 0.001). In those with less severe CAD (Gensini score 40 [25; 61]), however, we could not detect a difference in CAD238 compared to patients with NCA (−0.487 ± 0.341 vs. −0.612 ± 0.269, P = 0.119).ConclusionsIn conclusion the urinary polypeptide CAD238 score is associated with CAD burden and has potential as a new cardiovascular biomarker.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12872-016-0246-y) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Long chain acyl-CoA synthetases (ACSL) activate fatty acids for utilization by numerous metabolic pathways. Of the five mammalian ACSL isozymes known, ACSL5 is the only one located on mitochondria and thought to be involved in apoptosis. Fatty acids up-regulate ACSL5 and increase apoptosis susceptibility in human hepatocytes, thus, we hypothesize that ACLS5 is a promoting factor in hepatocellular lipoapoptosis. To investigate this mechanism, we have used immunochemical techniques and RNA interference as well as liquid chromatography, tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS). Fatty acid uptake led to up-regulation of ACSL5 expression and enzymatic activity in primary hepatocytes, HepG2 cells and steatotic liver. Over-expression of ACSL5 decreased HepG2 cell viability and increased susceptibility to TRAIL and TNFa, whereas knock down of ACSL5 reduced apoptosis susceptibility in fatty-acid treated HepG2 cells. Apoptosis sensitisation was accompanied by enhanced caspase-3/7 activity, but was not associated with up-regulation of DR4, DR5 or TNF-R1. By applying lipidomic techniques, we determined the effect of ACSL5 on the cellular amounts and subspecies of fatty acyl-CoAs as well as on sphingolipids, the downstream metabolites that are known to be important regulators of cell death and survival. High ACSL5 activity in HepG2 cells increased synthesis of long-chain acyl-CoAs by 50%, and enhanced ceramide and sphingomyelin levels by 2 to 3 fold. These results indicate that steatosis-induced upregulation of ACSL5 increased apoptosis susceptibility in human hepatocytes and that alterations in sphingolipid metabolism might contribute to ACSL5-mediated apoptotic effects. We propose that ACSL5 could play a role in promoting fatty acid-induced lipoapoptosis in hepatocytes as an important mechanism in fatty liver-related disorders.

Background: Combined congenic breeding and microarray gene expression profiling previously identified glutathione S-transferase m-type 1 (Gstm1) as a positional and functional candidate gene for blood pressure (BP) regulation in the stroke-prone spontaneously hypertensive (SHRSP) rat. Renal Gstm1 expression in SHRSP rats is significantly reduced when compared with normotensive Wistar Kyoto (WKY) rats. As Gstm1 plays an important role in the secondary defence against oxidative stress, significantly lower expression levels may be functionally relevant in the development of hypertension. The aim of this study was to investigate the role of Gstm1 in BP regulation and oxidative stress by transgenic overexpression of the Gstm1 gene. Method: Two independent Gstm1 transgenic SHRSP lines were generated by microinjecting SHRSP embryos with a linear construct controlled by the EF-1a promoter encoding WKY Gstm1 cDNA [SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)1 WKY and SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)2 WKY ]. Results: Transgenic rats exhibit significantly reduced BP and pulse pressure when compared with SHRSP [systolic: SHRSP 205.2 AE 3.7 mmHg vs. SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)1 WKY 175.5 AE 1.6 mmHg and SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)2 WKY 172 AE 3.2 mmHg, P < 0.001; pulse pressure: SHRSP 58.4 AE 0.73 mmHg vs. SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)1 WKY 52.7 AE 0.19 mmHg and SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)2 WKY 40.7 AE 0.53 mmHg, P < 0.001]. Total renal and aortic Gstm1 expression in transgenic animals was significantly increased compared with SHRSP [renal relative quantification (RQ): SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)1 WKY 1.95 vs. SHRSP 1.0, P < 0.01; aorta RQ: SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)1 WKY 2.8 vs. SHRSP 1.0, P < 0.05]. Renal lipid peroxidation (malondialdehyde: protein) and oxidized : reduced glutathione ratio levels were significantly reduced in both transgenic lines when compared with SHRSP [malondialdehyde: SHRSP 0.04 AE 0.009 mmol/l vs. SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)1 WKY 0.024 AE 0.002 mmol/l and SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)2 WKY 0.021 AE 0.002 mmol/l; (oxidized : reduced glutathione ratio): SHRSP 5.19 AE 2.26 mmol/l vs. SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)1 WKY 0.17 AE 0.11 mmol/l and SHRSP-Tg(Gstm1)2 WKY 0.47 AE 0.22 mmol/l]. Transgenic SHRSP rats containing the WKY Gstm1 gene demonstrate significantly lower BP, reduced oxidative stress and improved levels of renal Gstm1 expression. Conclusion: These data support the hypothesis that reduced renal Gstm1 plays a role in the development of hypertension.

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