The breathing motor pattern in mammals originates in brainstem networks. Whether pacemaker neurons play an obligatory role remains a key unanswered question. We performed whole-cell recordings in the preBötzinger Complex in slice preparations from neonatal rodents and tested for pacemaker activity. We observed persistent Na ϩ current (I NaP )-mediated bursting in ϳ5% of inspiratory neurons in postnatal day 0 (P0)-P5 and in P8 -P10 slices. I NaP -mediated bursting was voltage dependent and blocked by 20 M riluzole (RIL). We found Ca 2ϩ current (I Ca )-dependent bursting in 7.5% of inspiratory neurons in P8 -P10 slices, but in P0 -P5 slices these cells were exceedingly rare (0.6%). This bursting was voltage independent and blocked by 100 M Cd 2ϩ or flufenamic acid (FFA) (10 -200 M), which suggests that a Ca 2ϩ -activated inward cationic current (I CAN ) underlies burst generation. These data substantiate our observation that P0 -P5 slices exposed to RIL contain few (if any) pacemaker neurons, yet maintain respiratory rhythm. We also show that 20 nM TTX or coapplication of 20 M RIL ϩ FFA (100 -200 M) stops the respiratory rhythm, but that adding 2 M substance P restarts it. We conclude that I NaP and I CAN enhance neuronal excitability and promote rhythmogenesis, even if their magnitude is insufficient to support bursting-pacemaker activity in individual neurons. When I NaP and I CAN are removed pharmacologically, the rhythm can be maintained by boosting neural excitability, which is inconsistent with a pacemaker-essential mechanism of respiratory rhythmogenesis by the preBötzinger complex.

Neurons of the preBötzinger complex (preBötC) form local excitatory networks and synchronously discharge bursts of action potentials during the inspiratory phase of respiratory network activity. Synaptic input periodically evokes a Ca 2+ -activated non-specific cation current (I CAN ) postsynaptically to generate 10-30 mV transient depolarizations, dubbed inspiratory drive potentials, which underlie inspiratory bursts. The molecular identity of I CAN and its regulation by intracellular signalling mechanisms during inspiratory drive potential generation remains unknown. Here we show that mRNAs coding for two members of the transient receptor potential (TRP) family of ion channels, namely TRPM4 and TRPM5, are expressed within the preBötC region of neonatal mice. Hypothesizing that the phosphoinositides maintaining TRPM4 and TRPM5 channel sensitivity to Ca 2+ may similarly influence I CAN and thus regulate inspiratory drive potentials, we manipulated intracellular phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP 2 ) and measured its effect on preBötC neurons in the context of ongoing respiratory-related rhythms in slice preparations. Consistent with the involvement of TRPM4 and TRPM5, excess PIP 2 augmented the inspiratory drive potential and diminution of PIP 2 reduced it; sensitivity to flufenamic acid (FFA) suggested that these effects of PIP 2 were I CAN mediated. Inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP 3 ), the product of PIP 2 hydrolysis, ordinarily causes IP 3 receptor-mediated I CAN activation. Simultaneously increasing PIP 2 while blocking IP 3 receptors intracellularly counteracted the reduction in the inspiratory drive potential that normally resulted from IP 3 receptor blockade. We propose that PIP 2 protects I CAN from rundown by interacting directly with underlying ion channels and preventing desensitization, which may enhance the robustness of respiratory rhythm.

The frontal eye fi eld (FEF) contributes to directing visual attention and saccadic eye movement through intrinsic processing, interactions with extrastriate visual cortical areas (e.g., V4), and projections to subcortical structures (e.g., superior colliculus, SC). Several models have been proposed to describe the relationship between the allocation of visual attention and the production of saccades. We obtained anatomical information that might provide useful constraints on these models by evaluating two characteristics of FEF. First, we investigated the laminar distribution of efferent connections from FEF to visual areas V4 + TEO and to SC. Second, we examined the laminar distribution of different populations of GABAergic neurons in FEF. We found that the neurons in FEF that project to V4 + TEO are located predominantly in the supragranular layers, colocalized with the highest density of calbindin-and calretinin-immunoreactive inhibitory interneurons. In contrast, the cell bodies of neurons that project to SC are found only in layer 5 of FEF, colocalized primarily with parvalbumin inhibitory interneurons. None of the neurons in layer 5 that project to V4 + TEO also project to SC. These results provide useful constraints for cognitive models of visual attention and saccade production by indicating that different populations of neurons project to extrastriate visual cortical areas and to SC. This fi nding also suggests that FEF neurons projecting to visual cortex and SC are embedded in different patterns of intracortical circuitry.

The role of spike rate versus timing codes in visual target selection is unclear. We simultaneously recorded activity from multiple frontal eye field neurons and asked whether they interacted to select targets from distractors during visual search. When both neurons in a pair selected the target and had overlapping receptive fields (RFs), they cooperated more than when one or neither neuron in the pair selected the target, measured by positive spike timing correlations using joint peristimulus time histogram analysis. The amount of cooperation depended on the location of the search target: it was higher when the target was inside both neurons' RFs than when it was inside one RF but not the other, or outside both RFs. Elevated spike timing coincidences occurred at the time of attentional selection of the target as measured by average modulation of discharge rates. We observed competition among neurons with spatially non-overlapping RFs, measured by negative spike timing correlations. Thus, we provide evidence for dynamic and task-dependent cooperation and competition among frontal eye field neurons during visual target selection.

In peripheral vision, objects that are easily discriminated on their own become less discriminable in the presence of surrounding clutter. This phenomenon is known as crowding.The neural mechanisms underlying crowding are not well understood. Better insight might come from single-neuron recording in nonhuman primates, provided they exhibit crowding; however, previous demonstrations of crowding have been confined to humans. In the present study, we set out to determine whether crowding occurs in rhesus macaque monkeys. We found that animals trained to identify a target letter among flankers displayed three hallmarks of crowding as established in humans. First, at a given eccentricity, increasing the spacing between the target and the flankers improved recognition accuracy. Second, the critical spacing, defined as the minimal spacing at which target discrimination was reliable, was proportional to eccentricity. Third, the critical spacing was largely unaffected by object size. We conclude that monkeys, like humans, experience crowding. These findings open the door to studies of crowding at the neuronal level in the monkey visual system.