Membrane-bound pyrophosphatases (mPPases), which couple pyrophosphate hydrolysis to transmembrane transport of H and/or Na ions, are divided into K,Na-independent, Na-regulated, and K-dependent families. The first two families include H-transporting mPPases (H-PPases), whereas the last family comprises one Na-transporting, two Na- and H-transporting subfamilies (Na-PPases and Na,H-PPases, respectively), and three H-transporting subfamilies. Earlier studies of the few available model mPPases suggested that K binds to a site located adjacent to the pyrophosphate-binding site, but is substituted by the ε-amino group of an evolutionarily acquired lysine residue in the K-independent mPPases. Here, we performed a systematic analysis of the K/Lys cationic center across all mPPase subfamilies. An Ala → Lys replacement in K-dependent mPPases abolished the K dependence of hydrolysis and transport activities and decreased these activities close to the level (4-7%) observed for wild-type enzymes in the absence of monovalent cations. In contrast, a Lys → Ala replacement in K,Na-independent mPPases conferred partial K dependence on the enzyme by unmasking an otherwise conserved K-binding site. Na could partially replace K as an activator of K-dependent mPPases and the Lys → Ala variants of K,Na-independent mPPases. Finally, we found that all mPPases were inhibited by excess substrate, suggesting strong negative co-operativity of active site functioning in these homodimeric enzymes; moreover, the K/Lys center was identified as part of the mechanism underlying this effect. These findings suggest that the mPPase homodimer possesses an asymmetry of active site performance that may be an ancient prototype of the rotational binding-change mechanism of F-type ATPases.

Pseudouridimycin is a microbial C-nucleoside natural product that specifically inhibits bacterial RNA polymerases by binding to the active site and competing with uridine triphosphate for the nucleoside triphosphate (NTP) addition site. Pseudouridimycin consists of 5′-aminopseudouridine and formamidinylated, N-hydroxylated Gly−Gln dipeptide moieties to allow Watson−Crick base pairing and to mimic protein−ligand interactions of the triphosphates of NTP, respectively. The metabolic pathway of pseudouridimycin has been studied in Streptomyces species, but no biosynthetic steps have been characterized biochemically. Here, we show that the flavin-dependent oxidase SapB functions as a gate-keeper enzyme selecting pseudouridine (K M = 34 μM) over uridine (K M = 901 μM) in the formation of pseudouridine aldehyde. The pyridoxal phosphate (PLP)-dependent SapH catalyzes transamination, resulting in 5′-aminopseudouridine with a preference for arginine, methionine, or phenylalanine as cosubstrates as amino group donors. The binary structure of SapH in complex with pyridoxamine-5′-phosphate and site-directed mutagenesis identified Lys289 and Trp32 as key residues for catalysis and substrate binding, respectively. The related C-nucleoside oxazinomycin was accepted as a substrate by SapB with moderate affinity (K M = 181 μM) and was further converted by SapH, which opens possibilities for metabolic engineering to generate hybrid C-nucleoside pseudouridimycin analogues in Streptomyces.