Quality control during spirits production and means of authenticating or verifying sources of spirits in the sub-Saharan region of Africa are limited due to lack of resources and the scientific acumen required to develop methodologies for characterizing spirits. However, the increasing needs to protect consumers from negligence, or willful contamination of spirits in this region underscores the urgency with which growth in this area must happen. In this paper, we describe a multivariate statistical framework upon which characterization, identification and authentication of spirits could be developed. The framework exploits the unique chemical fingerprints of spirits with the goal of accomplishing three functions simultaneously: the detection of class differences, the authentication of spirits and the verification of sources. In a test case using the metal contents of 17 Ugandan spirits, this framework shows (i) that a class of unrecorded spirits known locally as Lira-Lira can be singled out from other spirits by their Cu contents, (ii) that localities from where the Lira-Lira spirits were purchased can be resolved to within 8 km by cluster analysis and principal component analysis, (iii) that cluster analysis loadings and scores, placed side-by-side, can pair spirits and their unique discriminating contaminants directly, (iv) that the most important metals for authenticating 13 spirits, source verification and production methods are Al, Sr, Ba, Mn, Zn and Cu (high concentration variability across samples is the qualifying factor), (v) that common sources of contamination can be detected by Pearson correlation analysis (this study finds that Sn/Cd, Pb/Cr, Tl/Cr, Pb/Ni or Cu/Ag as well as the triad Se/As/Ni in the 13 Ugandan spirits are from similar sources), and (vi) that inconsistency in spirits production can be detected with empirical data. Such rudimentary solutions to characterizing spirits have never been offered to the sub-Saharan countries.
Background: Environmental contamination with elevated levels of copper (Cu), cobalt (Co), iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), lead (Pb), chromium (Cr6+), cadmium (Cd), and nickel (Ni)—all states of which are found in Uganda—raises health risk to the public. Pb, Cr6+, Cd, and Ni for instance are generally considered nonessential to cellular functions, notwithstanding the importance of the oxidative state of the metals in bioavailability. As such, we aimed in this study (i) to evaluate heavy metal concentrations in four vegetables from a typical open-air market in Uganda, (ii) to assess the safety of consuming these vegetables against the World Health Organization (WHO) recommended limits of heavy metals consumption, and (iii) to formulate a model of estimated daily intake (EDI) among consumers in the country. Methods: This was a cross-sectional study conducted in five georeferenced markets of Bushenyi district in January 2020. Amaranthus, cabbages, scarlet eggplants, and tomatoes were collected from open markets, processed, and analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry. Modeled EDI, principal component (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) were conducted to identify relationships in the samples. Results: The levels of essential elements in the four vegetables were found to fall from Co > Cu > Fe > Zn. Those of non-essential metals were significantly higher and followed the pattern Cd > Cr > Pb > Ni. The highest EDI values were those of Cu in scarlet eggplants, Zn in amaranthus, Fe in amaranthus, Co in amaranthus, Pb in cabbages, total Cr in scarlet eggplant, Cd in cabbages and tomatoes, and Ni in cabbages. In comparison to international limits, EDIs for Zn, Cu, Co and Fe were low while Ni in cabbages were high. PCA showed high variations in scarlet eggplant and amaranthus. The study vegetables were found to be related with each other, not according to the location of the markets from where they were obtained, but according to their species by CA. Conclusion: The presence of non-essential elements above WHO limits raises policy challenges for the consumption and marketing of vegetables in the study area. Furthermore, low EDIs of essential elements in the vegetables create demand for nutritious foods to promote healthy communities.
Food contamination by heavy metals is a health burden in sub-Saharan Africa. Here, we illustrate this burden by quantifying levels of Cd, Cr, Ni, Co, Pb, Fe, Cu and Zn in vegetables from Bushenyi District (Uganda). Results show that cabbage, scarlet eggplant, tomato and amaranth sold in Bushenyi, Ishaka, Kashenyi, Kizinda and Nyakabirizi open markets contain high levels of Zn and Fe. The uptake of metals overall appeared to be speciesspecific. Amaranth, for example, had more metals than scarlet eggplant, which in turn had more metals than tomato or cabbage. Within a species, cabbage from Ishaka and Kashenyi presented a combinatorial set of characteristics quite distinct from cabbage from other areas. Such differences arose perhaps from differential capacities to uptake/retain metals from soil or atmospheric particulates. More studies are needed to pinpoint sources of vegetable contamination in Bushenyi. Perhaps then remedial measures can be proposed.
Information about food hygiene and quality in the sub-Saharan African countries remains scarce at a time when many of their citizenry are beginning to acquire the much coveted middle income status. Compounding this are challenges linked to monitoring the safety of food produced by such lucrative industries as the beef industry on a continuous basis. The objective of the study was to begin some how the process of encouraging changes to the status quo and showing by example how a start in that direction might look like. Using heavy metal contents of representative beef samples from butcheries in Soroti, Uganda typical of a sub-Saharan country, we demonstrate how relationships and common sources of metals could be identified among samples in a multivariate space. Beef samples from 40 sites were analyzed by atomic absorption spectrometry for iron (Fe), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni), chromium (Cr), lead (Pb), copper (Cu), cobalt (Co) and cadmium (Cd). The study showed that all beef samples contained these metals, the extent of which were in the order: Fe > Zn > > Ni, Cr > Pb > Cu, Co > Cd. By correlation analysis, the pairs Ni and Cr, Cd and Co, Ni and Fe or Cr and Fe were most likely coming from the same sources. We also found that there are at least three distinct characteristics of beef consumed in Soroti, a distinction perhaps arising from three major categories of feedlots used to raise donor cattle. The incremental risk of children or adults developing cancer over a lifetime was estimated and found to fall into three categories, two of which are separately explained by the presence of Cr or Ni. The sources of these metals remain a matter of speculation on our part. More studies are needed to determine these sources and to understand the nature of cancer risk in the three categories of beef identified here.
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