BackgroundParkinson disease (PD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder presenting with symptoms of resting tremor, bradykinesia, rigidity, postural instability and additional severe cognitive impairment over time. These symptoms arise from a decrease of available dopamine in the striatum of the brain resulting from the breakdown and death of dopaminergic (DA) neurons. A process implicated in the destruction of these neurons is mitochondrial breakdown and impairment. Upkeep and repair of mitochondria involves a number of complex and key components including Pink1, Parkin, and the PGC family of genes. PGC-1α has been characterized as a regulator of mitochondria biogenesis, insulin receptor signalling and energy metabolism, mutation of this gene has been linked to early onset forms of PD. The mammalian PGC family consists of three partially redundant genes making the study of full or partial loss of function difficult. The sole Drosophila melanogaster homologue of this gene family, spargel (srl), has been shown to function in similar pathways of mitochondrial upkeep and biogenesis.ResultsDirected expression of srl-RNAi in the D. melanogaster eye causes abnormal ommatidia and bristle formation while eye specific expression of srl-EY does not produce the minor rough eye phenotype associated with high temperature GMR-Gal4 expression. Ddc-Gal4 mediated tissue specific expression of srl transgene constructs in D. melanogaster DA neurons causes altered lifespan and climbing ability. Expression of a srl-RNAi causes an increase in mean lifespan but a decrease in overall loco-motor ability while induced expression of srl-EY causes a severe decrease in mean lifespan and a decrease in loco-motor ability.ConclusionsThe reduced lifespan and climbing ability associated with a tissue specific expression of srl in DA neurons provides a new model of PD in D. melanogaster which may be used to identify novel therapeutic approaches to human disease treatment and prevention.
Parkinsonian-pyramidal syndrome (PPS) is an early onset form of Parkinson's disease (PD) that shows degeneration of the extrapyramidal region of the brain to result in a severe form of PD. The toxic protein build-up has been implicated in the onset of PPS. Protein removal is mediated by an intracellular proteasome complex: an E3 ubiquitin ligase, the targeting component, is essential for function. FBXO7 encodes the F-box component of the SCF E3 ubiquitin ligase linked to familial forms of PPS. The Drosophila melanogaster homologue nutcracker (ntc) and a binding partner, PI31, have been shown to be active in proteasome function. We show that altered expression of either ntc or PI31 in dopaminergic neurons leads to a decrease in longevity and locomotor ability, phenotypes both associated with models of PD. Furthermore, expression of ntc-RNAi in an established α-synuclein-dependent model of PD rescues the phenotypes of diminished longevity and locomotor control.
Mitochondrial destruction leads to the formation of reactive oxygen species, increases cellular stress, causes apoptotic cell death, and involves a cascade of proteins including PARKIN, PINK1, and Mitofusin2. Mitochondrial biogenesis pathways depend upon the activity of the protein PGC-1α. These two processes are coordinated by the activity of a transcriptional repressor, Parkin interacting substrate (PARIS). The PARIS protein is degraded through the activity of the PARKIN protein, which in turn eliminates the transcriptional repression that PARIS imposes upon a downstream target, PGC-1α. Genes in this pathway have been implicated in Parkinson's disease, and there is a strong relationship between mitochondrial dysfunction and pre-mature neuron death. The identification of a PARIS homolog in Drosophila melanogaster would increase our understanding of the roles that PARIS and interacting genes play in higher organisms. We identified three potential PARIS homologs in D. melanogaster, one of which encodes a protein with similar domains to the Homo sapiens PARIS protein, CG15436. The Drosophila eye is formed from neuronal precursors, making it an ideal system to assay the effects of altered gene expression on neuronal tissue formation. The eye-specific expression of RNAi constructs for these genes revealed that both CG15269 and Crol caused neurodegenerative phenotypes, whereas CG15436 produced a phenotype similar to srl-EY. Crol-RNAi expression reduced mean lifespan when expressed in dopaminergic neurons, whereas CG15436-RNAi significantly increased lifespan. CG15436 was PARIS-like in both structure and function, and we characterized the effects of decreased gene expression in both the neuron-rich D. melanogaster eye and in dopaminergic neurons.
Degenerative diseases cause the breakdown or destruction of a cell or group of cells over a period of time, leading to an array of physical or cognitive symptoms including impaired motor skills, memory loss and dementia. Often, degenerative diseases have been characterized as afflictions of the elderly but earlier onset forms of these diseases have been linked to genetic dysfunction. Mutant forms of genes often lead to the breakdown of the cell via interference with internal pathways involved in the removal of impaired cellular components and energy production. Mitochondria are dynamic organelles involved in cellular energy production and in intra-cellular signalling leading to cell death. The proper function and upkeep of these organelles is essential to maintaining a healthy cellular environment and preventing accumulation of harmful oxidative free radicals. Breakdown and improper functioning of mitochondria has been linked to the onset of a number of diverse neurological diseases including Alzheimer Disease, Huntington Disease, Parkinson Disease, Multiple Sclerosis, retinal abnormalities and muscle neuron linked motor impairment. In this review, we examine the role of mitochondria in degenerative disease and highlight common mechanisms of disease progression as well as potential targets for future therapeutic approaches.
ABSTRACT. F-box proteins act as the protein recognition component of the Skp-Cul-F-box class of ubiquitin ligases. Two members of a gene sub-family encoding these proteins, FBXO7 and FBXO32, have been implicated in the onset and progression of degenerative disease. FBXO7 is responsible for rare genetic forms of Parkinson disease, while FBXO32 has been implicated in muscle wasting. The third gene in this family, FBXO9, is related to growth signaling, but the role of this gene in degenerative disease pathways has not been thoroughly investigated. Characterizing the putative Drosophila melanogaster homologue of this gene, CG5961, enables modeling and analysis of the consequence of targeted alteration of gene function and the effects on the overall health of the organism. or CG5961-RNAi in the dopaminergic neurons led to a reduced lifespan compared to that in lacZ controls. We showed that protein structures of CG5961 and FBXO9 are highly similar and studied the effects of altered expression of CG5961 in neuron-rich tissues. Our results suggest that CG5961 activity is necessary for the proper formation of neuronal tissue and that targeted alteration of gene expression in dopaminergic neurons leads to a reduced lifespan.
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