This study focused on mediating and moderating processes underlying the relationship between work hours and well-being. Questionnaire data from 292 female employees in two UK public sector organizations were analysed. Drawing on effort-recovery theory and published empirical findings, it was hypothesized that workÁfamily interference (WIF) would mediate the relationship between work hours and measures of well-being (psychological distress and family satisfaction), and that work-time control would moderate the association between work hours and WIF. Hierarchical regression analyses showed that, after controlling for demographic variables, neuroticism, and job demands, WIF mediated the effect of work hours on family satisfaction, although no evidence of mediation was found for the psychological distress outcome measure. Work-time control moderated the relationship between work hours and WIF; higher control buffered the effect of longer hours on WIF. These findings add to the literature on the role of WIF in the effort-recovery process by showing that longer work hours are not necessarily associated with higher workÁfamily interference, and hence with poor recovery and impaired well-being. Instead, having a degree of control over work hours moderates the first link in this process. Thus, the provision by employers of some flexibility and control over work hours may help to reduce the potential negative impact of long work hours on employees.
Stress alters the ability to form, recall and maintain memory according to the Yerkes-Dodson/Hebb (YDH) law. The effects of environmentally relevant stressors, such as low environmental calcium and crowding, on learning and memory have previously been described in a laboratory-reared 'average' strain of Lymnaea stagnalis (i.e. the Dutch strain) as well as two strains of freshly collected L. stagnalis with enhanced memory formation abilities (i.e. 'smart' snails). Here, we use L. stagnalis to study the effects of other environmentally relevant stressors on memory formation in two other strains of freshly collected snails, one 'smart' and one 'average'. The stressors we examined are thermal, resource restriction combined with food odour, predator detection and, for the first time, tissue injury (shell damage). We show that the same stressor has significantly different effects on memory formation depending on whether snails are 'smart' or 'average'. Specifically, our data suggest that a stressor or a combination of stressors act to enhance memory in 'average' snails but obstruct memory formation in 'smart' snails. These results are consistent with the YDH law and our hypothesis that 'smart' snails are more easily stressed than 'average' snails.
Events typically occur in a specific context and the ability to assign importance to this occurrence plays a significant role in memory formation and recall. When the scent of a crayfish predator (CE) is encountered in Lymnaea stagnalis strains known to be predator experienced (e.g. the W-strain), enhancement of memory formation and depression of feeding occur, which are part of a suite of antipredator behaviours. We hypothesized that Lymnaea possess a form of higher-order conditioning, namely configural learning. We tested this by simultaneously exposing W-strain Lymnaea to a carrot food odour (CO) and predator scent (CE). Two hours later, we operantly conditioned these snails with a single 0.5 h training session in CO to determine whether training in CO results in long-term memory (LTM) formation. A series of control experiments followed and demonstrated that only the CO+CE snails trained in CO had acquired enhanced memory-forming ability. Additionally, following CE+CO pairing, CO no longer elicited an increased feeding response. Hence, snails have the ability to undergo configural learning. Following configural learning, CO becomes a risk signal and evokes behavioural responses phenotypically similar to those elicited by exposure to CE.
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