Spexin (SPX) and kisspeptin (KISS) are novel peptides relevant in the context of regulation of metabolism, food intake, puberty and reproduction. Here, we studied changes of serum SPX and KISS levels in female non-obese volunteers (BMI<25 kg/m2) and obese patients (BMI>35 kg/m2). Correlations between SPX or KISS with BMI, McAuley index, QUICKI, HOMA IR, serum levels of insulin, glucagon, leptin, adiponectin, orexin-A, obestatin, ghrelin and GLP-1 were assessed. Obese patients had lower SPX and KISS levels as compared to non-obese volunteers (SPX: 4.48±0.19 ng/ml vs. 6.63±0.29 ng/ml; p<0.001, KISS: 1.357±0.15 nmol/l vs. 2.165±0.174 nmol/l; p<0.01). SPX negatively correlated with BMI, HOMA-IR, insulin, glucagon, active ghrelin and leptin. Positive correlations were found between SPX and QUICKI index, McAuley index, serum levels of obestatin, GLP-1 and adiponectin and orexin-A Serum KISS negatively correlated with BMI, HOMA-IR, serum levels of insulin, glucagon, active ghrelin and leptin. KISS positively correlated with QUICKI index, McAuley index and adiponectin. In summary, SPX and KISS show negative correlations with obesity, insulin resistance indices, and hormones known to affect insulin sensitivity in females. Both, SPX and KISS could be therefore relevant in the pathophysiology of obesity and insulin resistance.

IntroductionGhrelin, leptin and insulin are involved in neurohormonal regulation of energetic homeostasis.AimWe investigated the correlation between nutritional status and plasma levels of leptin, ghrelin and insulin in lean, obese and anorexic subjects.Material and methodsNineteen obese and 18 anorexic adults were enrolled in the study. Seventeen adults with normal body mass index (BMI) served as controls. Blood samples were taken twice: before breakfast and 2 h after breakfast. Fasting and postprandial ghrelin, leptin and insulin were examined. The following correlations were estimated: between BMI and basal level of tested hormones, between insulin and ghrelin, and between insulin and leptin. The threshold level of significance was p ≤ 0.05 for all calculations.ResultsBasal insulin level was lowest in anorexic patients and greatest in obese subjects. Fasting plasma ghrelin was lower in obesity and higher in anorexia as compared with the controls. Comparing with controls, fasting leptin levels were higher in obese and lower in anorexic subjects. There was positive correlation between BMI and basal leptin level in obesity. A significant postprandial increase was noted for insulin in all studied groups. Increased leptin and decreased ghrelin levels were detected 2 h after a meal in the control group. In obese patients, postprandial leptin was lower than before food intake, and fasting leptin showed positive correlation with basal insulin level.ConclusionsBasal plasma ghrelin, leptin and insulin levels differ according to nutritional status. Impaired ghrelin and leptin secretion and insulin sensitivity may be involved in the pathogenesis of eating disorders.

Since identification in 1994 of leptin, a hormone produced by adipocytes, adipose tissue has become the subject of intensive research. These studies contributed to the discovery that adipocytes have the ability to synthesize and secrete biologically active substances called "adipokines". Adipokines include a variety of cytokines, peptide hormones and enzymes that play a role in a wide variety of biological functions. For example, they are involved in the regulation of appetite, energy homeostasis, vascular hemostasis, blood pressure, inflammatory and immune processes and play a role in the metabolism of carbohydrates and fats. In obese patients, the secretion of adipokines is frequently abnormal. These changes may predispose to the development of insulin resistance, hypertension and inflammation. Therefore, adipokines are the subject of ongoing clinical trials. The family of adipokines is increasing by the newly discovered peptides. This paper presents the current state of knowledge about retinol binding protein 4 (RBP-4), fasting-induced adipose factor/angiopoietin-like protein 4 (FIAF/ANGPTL4), fibroblast growth factor-21 (FGF21), dipeptidyl peptidase-4 (DPP-4), irisin and their potential role in the pathogenesis of metabolic disorders associated with obesity. The knowledge of the role of newly discovered adipokines may help in the treatment of metabolic syndrome.

Excessive adiposity without co-morbidities is not associated with higher levels of circulating RBP4. Serum RBP4 cannot be considered as a direct predictive marker for impaired glucose metabolism. RBP4 possibly contributes to lipid metabolism.

We determined whether cold water swimming for six consecutive months results in adaptive changes in body composition and insulin sensitivity. Thirty healthy subjects aged 50.2 ± 9.4 years were exposed to cold water at least twice a week. Body composition was determined and serum glucose and insulin served to calculate beta-cell function, insulin sensitivity, and resistance using HOMA2. Compared with control subjects, swimmers were overweight, and had greater percent body fat and beta cell function. Women had lower values of BMI, fat free mass, muscle mass, visceral adipose tissue level, and greater percent body fat than men. Increased insulin sensitivity and decreased insulin secretion and resistance from beginning to middle of swim season was observed in females and in lean subjects. Findings suggest that men and women differ in regard to body composition and response to repeated cold exposure. Cold water swimming may beneficially modulate insulin sensitivity in cold acclimated lean swimmers.

Regular cold water swimming may stimulate metabolic changes suggesting that leptin and insulin participate in adaptive metabolic mechanisms triggered by repeated cold exposure accompanied by mild exercise in healthy non-obese women.

Wprowadzenie i cel pracy. Rozwój somatyczny organizmu to kompleksowy i dynamiczny proces warunkowany wieloma czynnikami płodowymi, matczynymi, łożyskowymi i środowiskowymi. Kluczowe znaczenie dla zapewnienia prawidłowego wzrostu i różnicowania się komórek, tkanek i narządów mają zarówno sygnały żywieniowe, jak i endokrynne. Zakłócenia w tym zakresie mogą wpływać niekorzystnie nie tylko na wzrost płodu, ale również na zdrowie dzieci w przyszłości. W pracy przedstawiono znaczenie regulatorów endokrynologicznych, w tym hormonu wzrostu, insulinopodobnego czynnika wzrostu typu 1 oraz greliny, w rozwoju płodu. Skrócony opis stanu wiedzy. Centralnym ogniwem układu kontrolującego mechanizm regulacji wzrastania jest przysadka mózgowa wydzielająca hormon wzrostu. W układzie podwzgórze-przysadka mózgowa-tkanki obwodowe produkowane są również inne czynniki wzrostu, m.in. insulinopodobne czynniki wzrostu typu 1 i 2, zwane somatomedynami, które razem z białkami je wiążącymi aktywizują procesy metaboliczne i stymulują wzrastanie płodu. Ponadto, jak wynika z ostatnio prowadzonych badań, kluczową rolę w regulacji wzrastania w okresie płodowym i noworodkowym może odgrywać również grelina. Podsumowanie. Przysadkowy hormon wzrostu nie wpływa znacząco na procesy wzrastania płodu. Jednym z ważniejszych czynników zaangażowanych w regulację wzrostu we wczesnym stadium rozwoju zarodkowego płodu jest insulinopodobny czynnik wzrostu typu 1. Istotną rolę w rozwoju płodu spełnia również grelina, która może uczestniczyć w kompensacji wewnątrzmacicznego niedożywienia i promowaniu rozwoju postnatalnego. Słowa kluczowe hormon wzrostu, insulinopodobny czynnik wzrostu typu 1, białka wiążące insulinopodobne czynniki wzrostu, grelina, rozwój płodu

Irritable bowel syndrome is the most common chronic functional gastrointestinal disorder that is characterised by abdominal pain associated with defecation, accompanied by a change in the frequency of bowel movements or stool form. Although it has a significant impact on a patient’s quality of life, it is not a terminal illness. Lately, there has been an increasing interest in nutritional treatment for irritable bowel syndrome, especially a diet low in fermentable oligosaccharides, disaccharides, monosaccharides and polyols (FODMAP). These carbohydrates ferment easily, they are poorly absorbed and have high osmotic pressure whereby they can trigger gastrointestinal disturbances in patients with irritable bowel syndrome. Many studies demonstrated that FODMAP restriction reduces the osmotic load and gas production in the small intestine and the colon, ensuring symptomatic relief in patients suffering from irritable bowel syndrome. Long-term health effects of using a low-FODMAP diet are not known, therefore, stringent FODMAP restriction is not recommended because of risks of inadequate nutrient intake and potential harmful effects from altered gut microbiota. In summary, there is evidence to strongly support the efficacy of a low-FODMAP diet in the treatment of irritable bowel syndrome. However, further and more detailed studies are required to understand any potential side effects of long-term restriction of FODMAP.