Mast cells (MCs) are potent inflammatory cells that are distributed throughout mucosal barrier tissues and respond rapidly to pathogenic stimuli. During helminth infections, MCs play an important role as late-stage effectors. However, it is currently unknown whether MCs contribute to the early innate events that determine the priming of adaptive immunity. MC-deficient mouse strains and mice treated with the MC stabilizing agent cromolyn sodium had dramatically reduced Th2 priming and type 2 cytokine production and harbored increased parasite burdens following infection with gastrointestinal helminths (Heligmosomoides polygyrus bakeri and Trichuris muris). In addition, early production of the tissuederived cytokines IL-25, IL-33, and thymic stromal lymphopoietin (TSLP) was significantly diminished in MC-deficient mice and resulted in decreased numbers of infection-elicited IL-25-dependent (Lin+ progenitors, which produced type 2 cytokines and could be differentiated into mast cells ex vivo. Finally, repair of MC deficiency increased production of IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP, restored progenitor cell numbers and Th2 priming, and reduced parasite burden. Our data reveal an innate IgE-independent role for MCs in orchestrating type 2 immune responses via the regulation of IL-25, IL-33, and TSLP.

The cystatin superfamily comprises several groups of protease inhibitors. In this chapter we will focus on I25 family members, which consist predominantly of the type 2 cystatins. Recently, a wealth of information on these molecules and their activities has been described. Parasite cystatins are shown to have dual functions via interaction with both parasite and host proteases. Thereby, parasite cystatins are not only essentially involved in the regulation of physiological processes during parasite development, but also represent important pathogenicity factors. Interestingly, some studies indicate that parasite cystatins evolved exceptional immuno-modulatory properties. these capacities could be exploited to interfere with unwanted immune responses in unrelated human inflammatory diseases. We highlight the different biological roles of parasite cystatins and the anticipated future developments.

Helminths are master regulators of host immune responses utilising complex mechanisms to dampen host protective Th2-type responses and favour long-term persistence. Such evasion mechanisms ensure mutual survival of both the parasite and the host. In this paper, we present recent findings on the cells that are targeted by helminths and the molecules and mechanisms that are induced during infection. We discuss the impact of these factors on the host response as well as their effect in preventing the development of aberrant allergic inflammation. We also examine recent findings on helminth-derived molecules that can be used as tools to pinpoint the underlying mechanisms of immune regulation or to determine new anti-inflammatory therapeutics.

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Ancylostoma ceylanicum belongs to a group of soil-transmitted helminths, which infect almost 576 mln people worldwide and are a major cause of anaemia and malnutrition. Upon contact with a permissive host, third-stage larvae (L3) residing in the environment become activated larvae (ssL3), a process associated with changes in the profile of gene expression. Ancylostoma secreted proteins (ASPs) are the major proteins secreted during larvae activation and play a crucial role in hookworm adaptation to parasitism. Here we report the cloning using RACE-PCR technique of three novel ASPs from the hookworm A. ceylanicum (Ace-asp-3, Ace-asp-4, and Ace-asp-5) and computational analysis of the protein sequences. All three proteins contain SCP (Sperm Coating Protein) domain characteristic for previously described ASP proteins. Real-time PCR analysis shows significant up-regulation of Ace-asp-3 and Ace-asp-5 expression in adult worms and correlated down-regulation in ssL3 larvae. On the other hand, expression of Ace-asp-4 was increased in ssL3 stages and decreased in adult parasites.

Hookworms, a group to which Ancylostoma ceylanicum belongs, are gastrointestinal nematodes that infect more than 700 million people around the world. They are a leading cause of anemia in developing countries. In order to effectively prevent hookworm infections research is conducted to develop an effective vaccine using recombinant antigens of the parasite. The aim of this study was to examine the influence of the hosts' on protection against ancylostomiasis and the shaping of the humoral immune response among Syrian hamsters after immunization with a cocktail of five A. ceylanicum recombinant antigens. Ace-ASP-3, Ace-ASP-4, Ace-APR-1, Ace-MEP-6 and Ace-MEP-7 were obtained in the pET expression system. Immunization with a vaccine cocktail resulted in a 33.5% worm burden reduction. The immunogenicity of the recombinant proteins were determined using ELISA. Statistical analysis showed that vaccinated hamsters developed stronger humoral responses to four of five recombinant antigens (the exception being Ace-ASP-3) compared to hamsters from the control group.

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