Endovascular stent-graft repair is less invasive in patients with chronic and acute descending thoracic aortic aneurysm and dissection.

The late outcome in terms of survival and functional status after ASO is excellent. Nevertheless, the risk of a clinically silent late coronary artery obstruction of the reimplanted coronary arteries warrants a prolonged follow-up protocol involving invasive angiographic assessment.

The arterial switch operation has become the treatment of choice for neonates with transposition of the great arteries. Currently, the early mortality rate is low as well as the need for early reoperation because of surgical failures; in our experience with 803 neonates, these risks were 3.8% and 1.5%, respectively. The late outcome in terms of survival and functional status is excellent. However, surgical repair is far from anatomical and potential late defects were identified as soon as this procedure was introduced: obstruction of the neo-pulmonary outflow tract, development of obstructions of the reimplanted coronary arteries, dysfunction of the neo-aortic valve, and progressive left ventricular dysfunction. Actually, late reoperations are required in 5-10% of patients (4.5% in our experience with a mean follow-up of 5.8 years). The more frequent indications for reoperation are coronary lesions and right ventricular outflow tract obstructions. Coronary obstructions are, in most cases, detected in patients without any clinical or echocardiographic evidence of myocardial ischaemia. Coronary lesions are progressive and repeated coronary evaluation at regular intervals is necessary. Reoperation is indicated when myocardial ischaemia, at rest or under stress, is demonstrated at myocardial imaging. Satisfactory results can be achieved by surgical coronary patch angioplasty; in selected cases, mammary bypass may be necessary. Right ventricular outflow tract obstruction is related either to inadequate growth of the pulmonary anastomotic site, or to inadequate growth of the whole new right ventricular outflow tract in patients with associated aortic arch obstruction. Reoperation is indicated when significant obstruction (gradient >50 mmHg) is detected at routine echo-Doppler evaluation. Although neo-aortic root dilation and minimal aortic valve insufficiency are common, reoperation for severe neo-aortic valve dysfunction is, to date, very rarely necessary. Whether this will remain the case in the decades to come requires further evaluation. Left ventricular function is maintained in the vast majority of patients. Reoperation may be indicated in some patients for other reasons: mitral valve malformation, tracheo-bronchial compression or pulmonary hypertension.

Improvement of patient outcome with traumatic rupture of the thoracic aorta can be achieved by delaying surgical repair until after management of major associated injuries if there are no signs of impending rupture. Endovascular treatment is feasible and safe and may represent a valid alternative to open surgery in selected cases.

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All coronary-related death occurred within the first 6 months after ASO, and all patients but 1 were operated before 2001. In our experience, it appears that a single CA is not any more a risk factor for early and late mortality after ASO for TGA. Mortality has drastically reduced since 2001 and is now close to that found in TGA with standard coronary patterns. The acquired experience shared between the surgeons and the institution offsets the undeniable surgical difficulty.

Surgical use of ECM in CHD repair is characterized by a suboptimal functional late performance on reconstruction of valve leaflet or pulmonary artery wall. Longer follow-up and larger clinical experience may support these preliminary results on mid-term outcomes, so as to assess the optimal indication for an ECM graft.

Sternal re-entry adds supplementary risk to cardiac re-operations and it may represent the most important factor in the entire hazard estimation. A new anti-adhesive substance, based on a polyethylene glycol material, has been proposed to solve this problem. Results and surgical observations at chest re-entry in five patients treated with this synthetic polymer are herein discussed.