The relationship between the integrity of white matter tracts and cortical function in the human brain remains poorly understood. Here we use a model of reversible white matter injury, compression of the optic chiasm by tumors of the pituitary gland, to study the structural and functional changes that attend spontaneous recovery of cortical function and visual abilities after surgical tumor removal and subsequent decompression of the nerves. We show that compression of the optic chiasm leads to demyelination of the optic tracts, which reverses as quickly as 4 weeks after nerve decompression. Furthermore, variability across patients in the severity of demyelination in the optic tracts predicts visual ability and functional activity in early cortical visual areas, and pre-operative measurements of myelination in the optic tracts predicts the magnitude of visual recovery after surgery. These data indicate that rapid regeneration of myelin in the human brain is a significant component of the normalization of cortical activity, and ultimately the recovery of sensory and cognitive function, after nerve decompression. More generally, our findings demonstrate the utility of diffusion tensor imaging as an in vivo measure of myelination in the human brain.

1AbstractPriors and payoffs are known to affect perceptual decision-making, but little is understood about how they influence confidence judgments. For optimal perceptual decision-making, both priors and payoffs should be considered when selecting a response. However, for confidence to reflect the probability of being correct in a perceptual decision, priors should affect confidence but payoffs should not. To experimentally test whether human observers follow this normative behavior, we conducted an orientation-discrimination task with varied priors and payoffs, probing both perceptual and metacognitive decision-making. We then examined the placement of discrimination and confidence criteria according to several plausible Signal Detection Theory models. In the normative model, observers use the optimal discrimination criterion (i.e., the criterion that maximizes expected gain) and confidence criteria that shift with the discrimination criterion that maximizes accuracy (i.e., are not affected by payoffs). No observer was consistent with this model, with the majority exhibiting non-normative confidence behavior. One subset of observers ignored both priors and payoffs for confidence, always fixing the confidence criteria around the neutral discrimination criterion. The other group of observers incorrectly incorporated payoffs into their confidence by always shifting their confidence criteria with the same gains-maximizing criterion used for discrimination. Such metacognitive mistakes could have negative consequences outside the laboratory setting, particularly when priors or payoffs are not matched for all the possible decision alternatives.

Priors and payo↵s are known to a↵ect perceptual decision-making, but little is understood about how they influence confidence judgments. For optimal perceptual decision-making, both priors and payo↵s should be considered when selecting a response. However, for confidence to reflect the probability of being correct in a perceptual decision, priors should a↵ect confidence but payo↵s should not. To experimentally test whether human observers follow this normative behavior for natural confidence judgments, we conducted an orientation-discrimination task with varied priors and payo↵s that probed both perceptual and metacognitive decision-making. The placement of discrimination and confidence criteria were examined according to several plausible Signal Detection Theory models. In the normative model, observers use the optimal discrimination criterion (i.e., the criterion that maximizes expected gain) and confidence criteria that shift with the discrimination criterion that maximizes accuracy (i.e., are not a↵ected by payo↵s). No observer was consistent with this model, with the majority exhibiting non-normative confidence behavior. One subset of observers ignored both priors and payo↵s for confidence, always fixing the confidence criteria around the neutral discrimination criterion. The other group of observers incorrectly incorporated payo↵s into their confidence by always shifting their confidence criteria with the same gains-maximizing criterion used for discrimination. Such metacognitive mistakes could have negative consequences outside the 2 laboratory setting, particularly when priors or payo↵s are not matched for all the possible decision alternatives.

The motor system executes actions in a highly stereotyped manner despite the high number of degrees of freedom available. Studies of motor adaptation leverage this fact by disrupting, or perturbing, visual feedback to measure how the motor system compensates. To elicit detectable effects, perturbations are often large compared to trial-to-trial reach endpoint variability. However, awareness of large perturbations can elicit qualitatively different compensation processes than unnoticeable ones can. The current experiment measures the perturbation detection threshold, and investigates how humans combine proprioception and vision to decide whether displayed reach endpoint errors are self-generated only, or are due to experimenter-imposed perturbation. We scaled or rotated the position of the visual feedback of center-out reaches to targets and asked subjects to indicate whether visual feedback was perturbed. Subjects detected perturbations when they were at least 1.5 times the standard deviation of trial-to-trial endpoint variability. In contrast to previous studies, subjects suboptimally combined vision and proprioception. Instead of using proprioceptive input, they responded based on the final (possibly perturbed) visual feedback. These results inform methodology in motor system experimentation, and more broadly highlight the ability to attribute errors to one's own motor output and combine visual and proprioceptive feedback to make decisions.

Gaze, pointing, and reaching movements are thought to provide a window to internal cognitive states. In the case of numerical cognition, it has been found that the left-right deviation of a reaching movement is modulated by the relative magnitude of values in a number comparison task. Some have argued that these patterns directly reflect the representation of a logarithmically compressed mental number line (direct mapping view). However, other studies suggest that the modulation of motor outputs by numerical value could be a more general decision-making phenomenon (response competition view). Here we test the generality of interactions between the motor system and numerical processing by comparing subjects' reach trajectories during two different nonverbal tasks: numerosity comparison and facial expression comparison. We found that reaching patterns were practically identical in both tasks -reach trajectories were equally sensitive to stimulus similarity in the numerical and face comparisons. The data provide strong support for the response competition view that motor outputs are modulated by domain-general decision processes, and reflect generic decision confidence or accumulation of evidence related to mental comparison. When asked to point to the larger of two numbers, one presented to the left and another to the right, subjects trajectories take a medial route when the numerical distance is close, and a more direct one when it is far (Santens, Goossens, & Verguts, 2011;Song & Nakayama, 2008). Such results imply that motor computations are penetrated by cognitive processing -the task of comparing numbers interacts with the path of the motor response. Modulations of motor responses by cognitive processes are not exclusive to number but are observed across a variety of domains, including intertemporal discounting, random dot motion, and phonology (Chapman et al., 2010a;Dshemuchadse, Scherbaum, & Goschke, 2013;Freeman & Ambady, 2011;Freeman, Ambady, Rule, & Johnson, 2008;Friedman, Brown, & Finkbeiner, 2013;Gallivan et al., 2011;Koop & Johnson, 2013;McKinstry, Dale, & Spivey, 2008;Spivey, Grosjean, & Knoblich, 2005;van der Wel, Sebanz, & Knoblich, 2014). jnc.psychopen.eu | 2363-8761 Although prior research suggests that reach trajectories are affected by cognitive processes across a variety of domains, a strong test of the domain-generality of these effects would be to compare performance with stimuli from different domains within a common task. Such a test is important for determining whether number-based modulations of motor responses are domain-specific (Chapman et al., 2014;Dotan & Dehaene, 2013;Song & Nakayama, 2008) or domain-general (Alonso-Diaz, Cantlon, & Piantadosi, 2015Santens et al., 2011). Surprisingly, to date, no studies have pitted domains against each other in equivalent reaching tasks to assess the effect of domain on dynamic motor behavior. In the literature on number processing, interactions between stimulus values and motor responses have only been tested with numerical stimuli alo...

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Dragonflies have high visual acuity, which, when combined with a remarkably fast visual response, allows them to hunt with a high success rate. They do so by intercepting small flies in flight rather than by chasing from behind. Eight bilateral pairs of large Target‐ Selective Descending Neurons (TSDNs) of the dragonfly ventral nerve cord respond to small, contrasting objects, which presumably represent potential prey. These interneurons are part of the neuronal circuitry that triggers small changes in wing angle and position to control flight during prey interception. In flight, dragonflies extend their legs to catch the prey about 20 ms before contact. The current research investigates the role of the TSDNs in prey contact. Spiking traces from the nerve cord were recorded during the presentation of growing black circles projected on a screen, which simulate approaching the prey. Several loom sizes and speeds were used to cover a range of realistic and unrealistic rates of expansion. We investigated whether the interneurons predict the time to contact of the simulated looming stimuli. We hypothesize that TSDNs innervate circuitry that controls leg muscles for the purpose of catching prey in flight.

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