Nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is characterized by the accumulation of excess liver triacylglycerol (TAG), inflammation, and liver damage. The goal of the present study was to directly quantify the biological sources of hepatic and plasma lipoprotein TAG in NAFLD. Patients (5 male and 4 female; 44 ± 10 years of age) scheduled for a medically indicated liver biopsy were infused with and orally fed stable isotopes for 4 days to label and track serum nonesterified fatty acids (NEFAs), dietary fatty acids, and those derived from the de novo lipogenesis (DNL) pathway, present in liver tissue and lipoprotein TAG. Hepatic and lipoprotein TAG fatty acids were analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. NAFLD patients were obese, with fasting hypertriglyceridemia and hyperinsulinemia. Of the TAG accounted for in liver, 59.0% ± 9.9% of TAG arose from NEFAs; 26.1% ± 6.7%, from DNL; and 14.9% ± 7.0%, from the diet. The pattern of labeling in VLDL was similar to that in liver, and throughout the 4 days of labeling, the liver demonstrated reciprocal use of adipose and dietary fatty acids. DNL was elevated in the fasting state and demonstrated no diurnal variation. These quantitative metabolic data document that both elevated peripheral fatty acids and DNL contribute to the accumulation of hepatic and lipoprotein fat in NAFLD.

BACKGROUND & AIMS: There have been few studies on the role of de novo lipogenesis in the development of nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD). We used isotope analyses to compare de novo lipogenesis and fatty acid flux between individuals with NAFLD and those without, matched for metabolic factors (controls). METHODS: We studied subjects with metabolic syndrome and/or levels of alanine aminotransferase and aspartate aminotransferase >30 mU/L, using magnetic resonance spectroscopy to identify those with high levels (HighLF, n=13) or low levels of intrahepatic triacylglycerol (LowLF, n=11). Clinical and demographic information was collected from all participants, and insulin sensitivity was measured using the insulin-modified intravenous glucose tolerance test. Stable isotopes were administered and gas chromatography with mass spectrometry was used to analyze free (non-esterified) fatty acid (FFA) and triacylglycerol flux and lipogenesis. RESULTS: Individuals with HighLF (18.4%±3.6%) had higher plasma levels of FFA during the nighttime and concentrations of insulin than subjects with LowLF (3.1%±2.7%; P=.04 and P<.001, respectively). No differences were observed between groups in adipose flux of FFA (414±195 μmol/min for HighLF vs 358±105 μmol/min for LowLF; P=.41) or production of very low-density lipoprotein triacylglycerols from FFA (4.06±2.57 μmol/min vs 4.34±1.82 μmol/min; P=.77). By contrast, subjects with HighLF had more than 3-fold higher rates of de novo fatty acid synthesis than subjects with LowLF (2.57±1.53 μmol/min vs 0.78±0.42 μmol/min; P=.001). As a percentage of triacylglycerol palmitate, de novo lipogenesis was 2-fold higher in subjects with HighLF (23.2%±7.9% vs 10.1 %±6.7%; P<.001); this level was independently associated with the level of intrahepatic triacylglycerol (r=0.53; P=.007). CONCLUSIONS: By administering isotopes to individuals with NAFLD and control subjects, we confirmed that those with NAFLD increase synthesis of fatty acids. Subjects with NAFLD also had higher nocturnal plasma levels of FFA and did not suppress the contribution from de novo lipogenesis upon fasting. These findings indicate that lipogenesis might be a therapeutic target for NAFLD.

Summary Approximately one-third of the U.S. population has nonalcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD), a condition closely associated with insulin resistance and increased risk of liver injury. Dysregulated mitochondrial metabolism is central in these disorders, but the manner and degree of dysregulation are disputed. This study tested whether humans with NAFLD have abnormal in vivo hepatic mitochondrial metabolism. Subjects with low (3.0%) and high (17%) intrahepatic triglyceride (IHTG) were studied using 2H and 13C tracers to evaluate systemic lipolysis, hepatic glucose production, and mitochondrial pathways (TCA cycle, anaplerosis, and ketogenesis). Individuals with NAFLD had 50% higher rates of lipolysis and 30% higher rates of gluconeogenesis. There was a positive correlation between IHTG content and both mitochondrial oxidative and anaplerotic fluxes. These data indicate that mitochondrial oxidative metabolism is ∼2-fold greater in those with NAFLD, providing a potential link between IHTG content, oxidative stress, and liver damage.

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These data: 1) quantify the extent to which the healthy liver manages its use of different sources of FAs that flow to it, 2) demonstrate how the postprandial reduction in adipose-NEFA flux may be partially replaced by other sources, and 3) highlight the potential for dietary FA spillover to support the continued dominance of NEFA as a substrate for VLDL-TG synthesis.

OBJECTIVEWe evaluate a potential role of activating transcription factor 4 (Atf4) in invertebrate and mammalian metabolism.RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODSWith two parallel approaches—a fat body–specific green fluorescent protein enhancer trap screen in D. melanogaster and expression profiling of developing murine fat tissues—we identified Atf4 as expressed in invertebrate and vertebrate metabolic tissues. We assessed the functional relevance of the evolutionarily conserved expression by analyzing Atf4 mutant flies and Atf4 mutant mice for possible metabolic phenotypes.RESULTSFlies with insertions at the Atf4 locus have reduced fat content, increased starvation sensitivity, and lower levels of circulating carbohydrate. Atf4 null mice are also lean, and they resist age-related and diet-induced obesity. Atf4 null mice have increased energy expenditure potentially accounting for the lean phenotype. Atf4 null mice are hypoglycemic, even before substantial changes in fat content, indicating that Atf4 regulates mammalian carbohydrate metabolism. In addition, the Atf4 mutation blunts diet-induced diabetes as well as hyperlipidemia and hepatosteatosis. Several aspects of the Atf4 mutant phenotype resemble mice with mutations in components of the target of rapamycin (TOR) pathway. Consistent with the phenotypic similarities, Atf4 null mice have reduced expression of genes that regulate intracellular amino acid concentrations and lower intracellular concentration of amino acids, a key TOR input. Further, Atf4 mutants have reduced S6K activity in liver and adipose tissues.CONCLUSIONSAtf4 regulates age-related and diet-induced obesity as well as glucose homeostasis in mammals and has conserved metabolic functions in flies.

The current data provide support for the use of the VLDL-triacylglycerol 16:1n-7 molar percentage as a biomarker for elevated liver fat when isotope use is not feasible; however, larger-scale confirmatory studies are needed.

These data demonstrate that obese youth show a different gut flora composition than lean and that short chain fatty acids are associated with body fat partitioning and DNL. Also, the gut microbiota of obese youth have a higher capability than the gut flora of lean to oxidize CHO.