Significance: Neurodegenerative diseases are characterized by progressive loss of neurons. A common feature is oxidative stress, which arises when reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) exceed amounts required for normal redox signaling. An imbalance in ROS/RNS alters functionality of cysteines and perturbs thiol-disulfide homeostasis. Many cysteine modifications may occur, but reversible protein mixed disulfides with glutathione (GSH) likely represents the common steady-state derivative due to cellular abundance of GSH and ready conversion of cysteine-sulfenic acid and S-nitrosocysteine precursors to S-glutathionylcysteine disulfides. Thus, S-glutathionylation acts in redox signal transduction and serves as a protective mechanism against irreversible cysteine oxidation. Reversal of protein-S-glutathionylation is catalyzed specifically by glutaredoxin which thereby plays a critical role in cellular regulation. This review highlights the role of oxidative modification of proteins, notably S-glutathionylation, and alterations in thiol homeostatic enzyme activities in neurodegenerative diseases, providing insights for therapeutic intervention. Recent Advances: Recent studies show that dysregulation of redox signaling and sulfhydryl homeostasis likely contributes to onset/progression of neurodegeneration. Oxidative stress alters the thiol-disulfide status of key proteins that regulate the balance between cell survival and cell death. Critical Issues: Much of the current information about redox modification of key enzymes and signaling intermediates has been gleaned from studies focused on oxidative stress situations other than the neurodegenerative diseases. Future Directions: The findings in other contexts are expected to apply to understanding neurodegenerative mechanisms. Identification of selectively glutathionylated proteins in a quantitative fashion will provide new insights about neuropathological consequences of this oxidative protein modification. Antioxid. Redox Signal. 16, 543-566.

Oxidative stress is implicated in the etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disease. PD is treated with chronic administration of L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (Levodopa, L-DOPA), and typically increasing doses are used during progression of the disease. Paradoxically L-DOPA is a pro-oxidant and induces cell death in cellular models of PD through disruption of sulfhydryl homeostasis involving loss of the thiol-disulfide oxidoreductase functions of the glutaredoxin (Grx1) and thioredoxin (Trx1) enzyme systems (Sabens et al. 2010). Considering this loss of both Grx1 and Trx1 activities upon L-DOPA treatment, we sought to elucidate the mechanism(s) of L-DOPA induced apoptosis. In other contexts both the NFκB (nuclear factor κB) pathway and the ASK1 (apoptosis signaling kinase 1) pathway have been shown to be regulated by both Grx1 and Trx1, and both pathways have been implicated in cell death signaling in model systems of PD. Moreover, mixed lineage kinase (MLK) has been considered as a potential therapeutic target for PD. Using SHSY5Y cells as model dopaminergic neurons we found that NFκB activity was not altered by L-DOPA treatment, and the selective MLK inhibitor (CEP-1347) did not protect the cells from L-DOPA. In contrast, ASK1 was activated with L-DOPA treatment as indicated by phosphorylation of its downstream mitogen activated protein kinases (MAPK), p38 and JNK. Chemical inhibition of either p38 or JNK provided protection from L-DOPA induced apoptosis. Moreover, direct knockdown of ASK1 protected from L-DOPA induced neuronal cell death. These results identify ASK1 as the main pro-apoptotic pathway activated in response to L-DOPA treatment, implicating it as a potential target for adjunct therapy in PD.