IntroductionThis paper reviews the current knowledge and understanding of Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. in humans, animals and the environment in 10 countries in the eastern part of Europe: Bosnia and Herzegovina, Croatia, Czech Republic, Estonia, Hungary, Latvia, Poland, Romania, Serbia and Slovenia. Methods: Published scientific papers and conference proceedings from the international and local literature, official national health service reports, national databases and doctoral theses in local languages were reviewed to provide an extensive overview on the epidemiology, diagnostics and research on these pathogens, as well as analyse knowledge gaps and areas for further research. Results: Cryptosporidium spp. and Giardia spp. were found to be common in eastern Europe, but the results from different countries are difficult to compare because of variations in reporting practices and detection methodologies used. Conclusion: Upgrading and making the diagnosis/detection procedures more uniform is recommended throughout the region. Public health authorities should actively work towards increasing reporting and standardising reporting practices as these prerequisites for the reported data to be valid and therefore necessary for appropriate control plans.
Cryptosporidium spp. infections in neonatal dairy calves can cause diarrhoea and, in rare cases, death. The infection is usually self-limiting, but halofuginone lactate (HL) can be used prophylactically. Calves (n=144) in the study were born during a 2-month period on one farm. A total of 901 serum and 767 faecal samples were collected. Based on HL treatment, the calves were divided into 3 groups: I) not treated, II) treated incorrectly (treatment started >48h after birth, or lasted <7days), and III) treated correctly (started <48h after birth, and lasted ≥7days). Over the 3-month observation period, 14.6% (n=21) of the calves died, of which most (67%) had not been treated with HL. Correctly performed treatment of cryptosporidiosis significantly delayed the onset of oocysts shedding (P<0.001) and reduced haptoglobin (HP) and serum amyloid A (SAA) concentrations in the second week of life. HP concentration and HL treatment were negatively associated with weight gain at 3months of age. Cryptosporidium positive faecal samples were significantly (P<0.001) more likely to be diarrhoeic but Giardia or Eimeria positive samples were not. Correct prophylactic treatment with HL delayed the shedding of Cryptosporidium oocysts and improved survival, but was negatively associated with weight gain. Incorrect treatment had a low impact on mortality and resembled no treatment regarding the proportion of calves shedding oocysts. Acute phase response (APR) in the second week of life seemed to be positively associated with shedding high amounts of Cryptosporidium oocysts.
We investigated the molecular epidemiology of Cryptosporidium spp. in Estonia by testing fecal samples from 486 calves aged <2 months, raised on 53 cattle farms, for the presence of Cryptosporidium DNA. The parasites were identified and characterized by sequencing of the 18S rRNA gene and of the 60 kDa glycoprotein (gp60) gene. Moreover, using a questionnaire, we surveyed factors that could be relevant for animal-to-human and human-to-animal transmission of Cryptosporidium spp. on the farms. Cryptosporidium spp. were shed by 23% of the investigated calves and at least one shedding calf was found on 66% of the farms. Cryptosporidium parvum was the most common species shed, while C. bovis and C. ryanae were also detected. More than half of the calves aged 8-14 days shed C. parvum. Nine previously described C. parvum subtypes (IIaA14G1R1, IIaA16G1R1, IIaA17G1R1, IIaA18G1R1, IIaA19G1R1, IIaA20G1R1, IIaA21G1R1, IIaA22G1R1 and IIaA16G2R1) and an apparently novel subtype IIlA21R2 were found. Calves from farms that reported spreading manure on fields during spring had 10 times higher odds to shed Cryptosporidium spp. in their feces than calves from farms that did not. Calves aged 8-14 days had higher odds to shed IIa18G1R1 as well as IIaA16G1R1 than younger calves.
14Efficient dairy-beef production relies on good quality of purchased calves, defined by breed, health, and growth 15 characteristics. Several management factors, such as commingling of calves and large group size, predispose 16 calves to diseases. Acute phase proteins are sensitive detectors of calf diseases. We studied the associations 17 between group size, serum acute phase proteins, immunoglobulin G (IgG), calf morbidity and growth of dairy-18 beef calves in a random field trial in a calf-rearing unit in Finland. 19The randomized trial was carried out at a calf rearing unit, where approximately 80 dairy or crossbred calves 20 were allocated either into a single group of 40 calves or into four groups of 10 on arrival at the calf-rearing 21 unit (at age 24.1 SD ± 9.2 days). The study was carried out on 6 arrival batches: 476 calves. Calves were 22clinically examined and blood sampled on arrival (day 0), and haptoglobin (Hp), serum amyloid A (SAA), 23 albumin and IgG were determined. Calves were weighed on arrival (day 0, average age 24.1 days), at the end 24 of the milk feed period (day 49), at approximately 200 days of age and at slaughter (carcass weight) at 15-18 25 months of age. During the rearing calves were observed by the farm workers and treated, if necessary, 26 according to predetermined instructions of the veterinary surgeon. All NSAID and antimicrobial treatments 27 were recorded and used as morbidity indicators in statistical analysis. 28There were no differences in the numbers of antimicrobial treatments or growth among the groups. The 29 majority (84.1%) of antimicrobial treatments were used against respiratory tract infections. Higher 30 concentrations of albumin and IgG on arrival extended the time before the first and the second antimicrobial 31 treatments. Complex relationships between group size, morbidity, concentrations of serum acute phase 32 proteins and IgG at arrival, and growth of calves were explored. Group size of 10 calves did not protect calves 33 from respiratory tract infections, when the small groups were sharing the air space with a large group. An 34 increased SAA concentration on arrival was associated with poorer average daily gain at two rearing periods 35 and with lower carcass weight at slaughter. 36Serum proteins could be valuable health indicators for purchased calves because they have numerous and 37 variable associations with health and growth. The mechanisms that connect increased SAA concentration and 38 poorer average daily gain over the long term remain unclear. 39
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