In long-ripened cheese, flavor formation occurs during ripening. The metabolism of lactic acid bacteria (LAB) leads to the production of different compounds that contribute to the flavor of cheese. The contribution of LAB to the formation of cheese flavor has previously been studied. However, the specific nonstarter LAB (NSLAB) metabolic reactions in ripened cheese that lead to the formation of flavor compounds remain unclear. In ripened cheese, the nutrient sources available include small peptides or amino acids, citrate, lactate, free fatty acids, and starter LAB cell lysis products. Thus, the aim of this study was to evaluate the ability of NSLAB to produce volatile flavor compounds by using an in vitro system that used only the nutrients available in ripened cheese as the energy source. Moreover, the potential contribution of the NSLAB volatilome on total cheese flavor is discussed. For this purpose, the production of volatile compounds on cheese-based medium (CBM) and on starter LAB lysed cell medium (LCM) by 2 Lactobacillus casei and 2 Lactobacillus rhamnosus strains, previously isolated from ripened Parmigiano Reggiano cheese, was investigated. The generated volatile compounds were analyzed with head-space gas chromatography mass spectrometry. Overall, ketones, aldehydes, alcohols, and acids were the most abundant compounds produced. Differences in volatilome production were found between NSLAB grown in LCM and CBM. The catabolic metabolism of amino acids and fatty acids were required for NSLAB growth on LCM. Conversely, pyruvate metabolism was the main catabolic pathway that supported growth of NSLAB in CBM. This study can be considered a first step toward a better understanding of how microbiota involved in the long ripening of cheese may contribute to the development of cheese flavor.

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In the present work, the bread-making performance of durum wheat flour under straight-dough and sourdough procedures were compared to those offered by soft wheat flour by means of selected physical properties (colour, texture, water dynamics, crumb grain characteristic, bulk volume) immediately after baking and during a 5-day shelf-life. The use of sourdough process better preserved both crumb grain characteristic and moisture content of the breads during shelf-life, independently of the wheat flour used. The flour seemed to significantly affect the water dynamics in sourdough breads, being the dehydration process of crust and under-crust faster in durum wheat breads. On the other hand, increasing trend of crumb firmness during the shelf-life was slower in durum wheat breads than in those obtained with soft wheat flour. Initial colour parameters of crust and crumb appeared to less change during shelf-life if durum wheat flour was used. Thus, the final quality of breads after baking and along the shelf-life was significantly affected by both the type of flours and the bread-making process. The results reported herein showed that technological performances of durum wheat flour, especially when combined with sourdough processes, could be successfully exploited for the production of innovative products in the bread-making industry.

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BackgroundLactobacillus rhamnosus is a non-starter lactic acid bacterium that plays a significant role during cheese ripening, leading to the formation of flavor. In long-ripened cheeses it persists throughout the whole time of ripening due to its capacity to adapt to changing environmental conditions. The versatile adaptability of L. rhamnosus to different ecosystems has been associated with the capacity to use non-conventional energy sources, regulating different metabolic pathways. However, the molecular mechanisms allowing the growth of L. rhamnosus in the cheese dairy environment are still poorly understood. The aim of the present study was to identify genes potentially contributing to the growth ability of L. rhamnosus PR1019 in cheese-like medium (CB) using a transcriptomic approach, based on cDNA-amplified fragment length polymorphism (cDNA-AFLP) and quantitative real-time reverse transcription-PCR (qPCR).ResultsUsing three primer combinations, a total of 89 and 98 transcript-derived fragments were obtained for L. rhamnosus PR1019 grown in commercial MRS medium and CB, respectively. The cDNA-AFLP results were validated on selected regulated genes by qPCR. In order to investigate the main adaptations to growth in a cheese-mimicking system, we focused on 20 transcripts over-expressed in CB with respect to MRS. It is worth noting the presence of transcripts involved in the degradation of pyruvate and ribose. Pyruvate is a intracellular metabolite that can be produced through different metabolic routes starting from the carbon sources present in cheese, and can be released in the cheese matrix with the starter lysis. Similarly the ribonucleosides released with starter lysis could deliver ribose that represents a fermentable carbohydrate in environments, such as cheese, where free carbohydrates are lacking.Both pyruvate degradation and ribose catabolism induce a metabolite flux toward acetate, coupled with ATP production via acetate kinase. Taking into account these considerations, we suggest that the energy produced through these pathways may concur to explain the great ability of L. rhamnosus PR1019 to grow on CB.ConclusionsBy a transcriptomic approach we identified a set of genes involved in alternative metabolic pathways in L. rhamnosus that could be responsible for L. rhamnosus growth in cheese during ripening.