One of the major difficulties in paleontology is the acquisition of fossil data from the 10% of Earth's terrestrial surface that is covered by thick glaciers and ice sheets. Here we reveal that DNA and amino acids from buried organisms can be recovered from the basal sections of deep ice cores and allow reconstructions of past flora and fauna. We show that high altitude southern Greenland, currently lying below more than two kilometers of ice, was once inhabited by a diverse array of conifer trees and insects that may date back more than 450 thousand years. The results provide the first direct evidence in support of a forested southern Greenland and suggest that many deep ice cores may contain genetic records of paleoenvironments in their basal sections.The environmental histories of high latitude regions such as Greenland and Antarctica are poorly understood because much of the fossil evidence is hidden below kilometer thick ice sheets (1-3). Here, we test the idea that the basal sections of deep ice cores can act as archives for ancient biomolecules and show that these molecules can be used to reconstruct significant parts of the past plant and animal life in currently ice covered areas.The samples studied come from the basal impurity rich (silty) ice sections of the 2km long Dye 3 core from south-central Greenland (4), the 3km long GRIP core from the summit of the UKPMC Funders Group Author Manuscript UKPMC Funders Group Author ManuscriptGreenland ice sheet (5), and the Late Holocene John Evans Glacier on Ellesmere Island, Nunavut, northern Canada (Fig. 1A,B). The latter sample was included as a control to test for potential exotic DNA because the glacier has recently overridden a land surface with a known vegetation cover (6). As an additional test for long-distance atmospheric dispersal of DNA, we included five control samples of debris-free Holocene and Pleistocene ice taken just above the basal silty samples from the Dye 3 and GRIP ice cores (Fig. 1B). Finally, our analyses included sediment samples from the Kap København Formation from the northernmost part of Greenland, dated to 2.4 million years before present (Ma BP) (1,2).The silty ice yielded only few pollen grains and no macrofossils (7). However, the Dye 3 and John Evans Glacier silty ice samples showed low levels of amino acid racemization (Fig. 1A, insert), indicating good organic matter preservation (8). Therefore, following previous success with permafrost and cave sediments (9-11), we attempted to amplify ancient DNA from the ice. This was done following strict criteria to secure authenticity (12-14), including covering the surface of the frozen cores with plasmid DNA to control for potential contamination that may have entered the interior of the samples through cracks or during the sampling procedure (7). PCR products of the plasmid DNA were obtained only from extracts of the outer ice scrapings but not from the interior, confirming that sample contamination had not penetrated the cores.We could reproducibly PCR amplify short ampli...

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Powdered pigments found in bowls from the Pompeii archaeological site and some wall-painting fragments from the Vesuvian area (conserved in the National Archaeological Museum of Naples) were investigated by microscopic Raman and FTIR spectroscopies, X-ray diffraction and scanning electron microscopy-energy dispersive X-ray. Brown, red and yellow pigments are common ochres based on goethite and haematite. The blue pigment is Egyptian blue: the presence of tridymite and cristobalite indicates firing temperatures in the 1000-1100 • C range. Pink pigments were prepared both with purely inorganic materials, by mixing haematite and Egyptian blue (violet hue), or presumably by adding an organic dye to an aluminium-silica matrix. A white powder found in a bowl is composed mainly of the unusual pigment huntite (CaMg 3 (CO 3 ) 4 ). Celadonite is found in the green samples from the wall paintings, together with Egyptian blue and basic lead carbonate, while the heterogeneous green pigment in a bowl shows malachite mixed with goethite, Egyptian blue, haematite, carbon, cerussite and quartz.