Cross-cultural studies on parenting have identified cultural nuances that may impact the form and functions of parenting styles and practices in different contexts. This systematic review is undertaken with the aim of identifying such nuances in an under-studied culture (Singapore), as a starting point to understand and compare the forms and functions of parenting in Asia and beyond. A review of 27 studies showed that optimal parenting styles and practices were associated with positive child development outcomes in Singapore, similar to what has been observed in Western contexts. However, some parenting behaviours that were typically considered to be sub-optimal were not invariably related to poorer child outcomes in Singapore, indicating that there may be protective cultural factors related to the interpretation of parental control. Adopting an emic approach to parenting research would deepen our understanding of the cultural generality and specificity of practices, ensuring that the design and implementation of parenting interventions are culturally appropriate and effective.

Cross‐cultural studies on parenting have identified cultural nuances that may impact the form and functions of parenting styles and practices in different contexts. This scoping review is undertaken with the aim of identifying such nuances in an under‐studied culture, as a starting point to understand and compare the forms and functions of parenting in Asia and beyond. A review of 27 studies showed that optimal parenting styles and practices were associated with positive child development outcomes in Singapore, similar to what has been observed in Western contexts. However, some parenting behaviours that were typically considered to be sub‐optimal were not invariably related to poorer child outcomes in Singapore, indicating that there may be protective cultural factors related to the interpretation of parental control. Adopting an emic approach to parenting research would deepen our understanding of the cultural generality and specificity of practices, ensuring that the design and implementation of parenting interventions are culturally appropriate and effective.

Despite evidence showing the negative impact of physical punishment and psychological discipline on children’s development, these forms of discipline remain accepted and normative in many Asian societies. We examined the extent to which parents used a combination of physical, psychological, and non-violent discipline, and identified factors which contributed to these discipline choices. Participants were 747 Singaporean parents (80.7% mothers) with a child between age 0 to 17. The ICAST-P and an adapted version of the Discipline Interview assessed participants’ actual use of physical, psychological and non-violent discipline; and their attitudes towards physical punishment and their perceived normativeness of it. Parents were also asked to indicate the frequency with which they received physical punishment during childhood. Results showed that nearly half (48.2%) of the parents had used at least one type of physical discipline in the past year. Parents tended to consider physical punishment to be ineffective (42.8%) and unacceptable most of the time (49.1%). Latent Class Analysis (LCA) revealed that 14.6% of the parents were harsh disciplinarians who frequently used physical and psychological discipline alongside non-violent methods. Parents who had younger children, and those who held more positive attitudes towards physical punishment, and experienced more physical punishment during childhood were more likely to be harsh disciplinarians. Future research should focus on understanding why parents use physical punishment despite considering it to be ineffective and unacceptable, so that advocacy efforts can be better formulated to educate and equip parents with non-violent discipline alternatives.

Parents utilize a variety of methods in disciplining children, with some of these approaches garnering more research attention than others. For example, the use of physical punishment has been a widely debated topic though previous studies have consistently found associations between experiences of physical punishment and later adjustment difficulties. However, disciplinary methods are seldom used in isolation thus rendering it challenging to explore how specific discipline strategies employed by parents may affect adjustment outcomes in children. Using a person-centred approach, this study examined how different latent class profiles of parents formed of various discipline strategies reported by young adults (YA) related to outcomes of emotion dysregulation, relationship with parents, and self-esteem. Discipline strategies were broadly categorized into non-violent, psychologically aggressive, and physical methods. Three classes of disciplinarians were identified: Class 1 reflected the harshest degree of parental discipline (high non-violent, high psychological, and high physical punishment), Class 2 reflected moderately harsh discipline (high non-violent, high psychological, and moderate physical punishment), and Class 3 reflected the least harsh discipline (high non-violent, moderate psychological, and low physical punishment). Both emotion dysregulation and relationship with parents varied as a function of physical or psychological discipline for mothers, but as a function of physical and psychological discipline for fathers. Self-esteem only varied as a function of physical and psychological discipline for mothers, but not fathers. Our results suggest that several negative outcomes are associated with moderate use of physical punishment, even within a cultural context where such methods are considered acceptable and normative. The use of psychologically aggressive discipline was also associated with some negative outcomes though the effects were more pronounced for mothers than fathers. Future studies could further our understanding of psychologically aggressive discipline, as well as provide richer insights into the experience of various discipline approaches using qualitative study designs.

The number of autistic people entering higher education (HE) is increasing steadily across the globe, yet research on understanding their experiences and support needs still focuses almost exclusively on the perspectives of autistic students attending HE in the U.S., U.K. and Australia. The present study sought to explore and understand (i) the experiences, opportunities, and challenges of autistic students in HE in Singapore; and (ii) non-autistic HE students’ experiences of studying alongside and socially engaging with their autistic peers. Twenty autistic and twenty-two non-autistic HE students in Singapore completed an online survey with open-ended questions. Framework analysis identified themes similar to those in the extant literature (e.g., autistic students enjoyed greater autonomy in HE compared to school, but often found difficulty juggling their numerous academic responsibilities) and novel themes pertaining to Singapore’s unique sociocultural context (e.g., Singaporean autistic people face high pressure to “blend in” due to societal values of conforming to social norms). Participants also noted considerable social isolation of autistic students, likely linked to a double empathy problem between autistic and non-autistic students. Improving inclusiveness both within HE and in the wider society is a necessarily joint effort among many stakeholders. Recommendations include HE stakeholders working together to develop and improve supports (e.g., implementing formal transition programmes) for autistic students and incorporating neurodiversity education into school curricula for all students.