Adult learning is an increasingly important form of education in globalised and aging societies. While current policy recommendations tend to focus on increasing participation rates, the authors of this article argue that higher participation rates do not necessarily lead to lower social/educational inequalities in participation. The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between social inequalities and adult learning by exploring cross-national patterns of participation in different adult learning activities and the consequences of participation on individual labour market trajectories. The empirical basis of the paper is an analysis of 13 country studies (as well as two cross-national analyses) brought together by the international comparative research project ''Education as a lifelong process -comparing educational trajectories in modern societies'' (eduLIFE). Despite wide variations in participation rates across countries, mechanisms of social/educational inequality in engagement in job-related adult learning tend to be relatively similar across countries, in particular with regard to non-formal learning. Effects tend most frequently to be a presence of cumulative advantage, though in some countries a certain degree of equalisation is noticeable with regard to formal adult education. The authors conclude that it is relatively clear that currently almost no country is truly able to reduce social inequalities through adult learning. Their recommendation is that public policy & Elina Kilpi-Jakonen makers should place greater emphasis on making adult learning more accessible (in terms of entry requirements, affordability as well as motivation) to underrepresented groups, in particular those who are educationally disadvantaged.Résumé Apprentissage des adultes et inégalités sociales : processus égalisateur ou cumul de désavantages ? L'apprentissage des adultes est une forme d'éducation qui gagne en importance dans nos sociétés mondialisées et vieillissantes. Si les recommandations stratégiques actuelles tendent à favoriser l'augmentation des taux de participation, les auteurs de cet article avancent que des taux de participation plus élevés ne conduisent pas nécessairement à une baisse des inégalités sociales et éducatives. Le but de cet article est d'étudier la relation entre inégalités sociales et apprentissage des adultes, en explorant les schémas internationaux de participation à diverses activités d'éducation des adultes, ainsi que les conséquences de la participation sur les parcours individuels dans le marché du travail. La base empirique de cet article est une analyse de 13 études nationales (et deux analyses transnationales) compilées par le projet international de recherche comparée Education as a lifelong process -comparing educational trajectories in modern societies (eduLIFE/Apprentissage tout au long de la vie -comparer les parcours éducatifs dans les sociétés modernes). En dépit des importantes variations des taux de participation entre les pays, les mécanismes d'inégalité sociale et éducat...

Drawing on comparative analyses from nine Western countries, we ask whether local-born children from a wide range of immigrant groups show patterns of female advantage in education that are similar to those prevalent in their host Western societies. We consider five outcomes throughout the educational career: test scores or grades at age 15, continuation after compulsory schooling, choice of academic track in upper-secondary education, completion of upper secondary, and completion of tertiary education. Despite great variation in gender gaps in education in immigrants' origin countries (with advantages for males in many cases), we find that the female advantage in education observed among the majority population is usually present among second-generation immigrants. We interpret these findings in light of ideas about gender role socialization and immigrant selectivity.

The education of children of immigrants is an important aspect of the integration of immigrant groups into receiving societies. This article focuses on the first transition in the Finnish education system. Two aspects of the transition are analysed: continuation versus dropping out and choice of upper secondary school type (general versus vocational).Results suggest that children of immigrants tend to have a higher probability of dropping out of education at this transition than the majority. However, this can largely be explained by prior school achievement and family resources. Controlling for these, only some first generation groups are left disadvantaged. Second generation students with very low prior school achievement or a father outside the labour force also have an increased risk of dropping out. These dropouts may be seen as discouraged students.The picture is more positive for choice of general school. After similar controls, most children of immigrants have a higher probability of choosing general school than the majority. The difference is largest for the non-European 2 nd generation and for students with below average prior school achievement. Together with the results for dropout, this points to an avoidance of vocational schools by some ethnic minority groups.

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The education of children of immigrants is an important aspect of the integration of immigrant groups into receiving societies. This article focuses on the first transition in the Finnish education system. Two aspects of the transition are analysed: continuation versus dropping out and choice of upper secondary school type (general versus vocational).Results suggest that children of immigrants tend to have a higher probability of dropping out of education at this transition than the majority. However, this can largely be explained by prior school achievement and family resources. Controlling for these, only some first generation groups are left disadvantaged. Second generation students with very low prior school achievement or a father outside the labour force also have an increased risk of dropping out. These dropouts may be seen as discouraged students.The picture is more positive for choice of general school. After similar controls, most children of immigrants have a higher probability of choosing general school than the majority. The difference is largest for the non-European 2nd generation and for students with below average prior school achievement. Together with the results for dropout, this points to an avoidance of vocational schools by some ethnic minority groups.