Sprouting induces activation and de novo synthesis of hydrolytic enzymes that make nutrients available for plant growth and development. Consumption of sprouted grains is suggested to be beneficial for human health. Positive consumer perceptions about sprouted cereals have resulted in new food and beverage product launches. However, because there is no generally accepted definition of “sprouting,” it is unclear when grains are to be called sprouted. Moreover, guidelines about how much sprouted grain material food products should contain to exert health benefits are currently lacking. Accordingly, there is no regulatory base to develop appropriate food labeling for “sprouted foods.” This review describes the nutritional and technological properties of sprouted grains in relation to processing conditions and provides guidelines to optimize sprouting practices in order to maximize nutritive value. Relatively long sprouting times (3 to 5 days) and/or high processing temperatures (25 to 35 °C) are needed to maximize the de novo synthesis and/or release of plant bioactive compounds. Nutrient compositional changes resulting from sprouting are often associated with health benefits. However, supportive data from clinical studies are very scarce, and at present it is impossible to draw any conclusion on health benefits of sprouted cereals. Finally, grains sprouted under the above‐mentioned conditions are generally unfit for use in traditional food processing and it is challenging to use sprouted grains as ingredients without compromising their nutrient content. The present review provides a basis for better defining what “sprouting” is, and to help further research and development efforts in this field as well as future food regulations development.

Chelation of iron and zinc in wheat as phytates lowers their bio-accessibility. Steeping and germination (15 °C, 120 h) lowered phytate content from 0.96% to only 0.81% of initial dry matter. A multifactorial experiment in which (steeped/germinated) wheat was subjected to different time (2-24 h), temperature (20-80 °C) and pH (2.0-8.0) conditions showed that hydrothermal processing of germinated (15 °C, 120 h) wheat at 50 °C and pH 3.8 for 24 h reduced phytate content by 95%. X-ray absorption near-edge structure imaging showed that it indeed abolished chelation of iron to phytate. It also proved that iron was oxidized during steeping, germination and hydrothermal processing. It was further shown that zinc and iron bio-accessibility were respectively 3 and 5% in wheat and 27 and 37% in hydrothermally processed wheat. Thus, hydrothermal processing of (germinated) wheat paves the way for increasing elemental bio-accessibility in whole grain-based products.

Priming improves the seed germination rate and grain yield. Before this work was executed, little, if any, research has been reported on priming wheat for improving its nutritional properties. The impact of hydro-priming and osmo-priming using solutions with different water potentials on selected hydrolytic enzyme activities and their breakdown of starch, cell wall materials, and phytates during subsequent sprouting was studied here. A higher germination rate in the early growth stage of seedlings was found for hydro-primed or osmo-primed (−0.3, −0.6 MPa) grains. Hydro-primed sprouted grains had the longest radicles and coleoptiles and the highest hydrolytic enzyme activities. The latter lead to a 90% increase in reducing sugar, a 20% increase in water-extractable arabinoxylan, and an 8% decrease in phytate contents after 5 days of sprouting. This study thus offers opportunities for optimizing agricultural practice. The presence of different plant hormones and their concentrations are generally not affected by priming. However, the plant hormone concentrations in grains primed at −1.2 MPa and subsequently sprouted were lower than those in all other samples under study. The induction of too high osmotic stresses in these grains leads to disruption of the sprouting processes. Finally, it was for the first time found, based on the known biosynthesis pathways of wheat, that gibberellic acid (GA)20-oxidase in (primed) sprouted wheat is more active than GA3-oxidase and much more active than GA13-oxidase.

BackgroundRye (Secale cereale L.) is, second to wheat (Triticum aestivum L.), the most common cereal used for producing bread. Rye‐based breads are of great interest because of their high dietary fiber and lysine contents and because of their health effects. However, the bread‐making performance of rye flour is inferior to that of wheat flour.FindingsThis review summarizes the current knowledge about the major rye constituents (starch, proteins, and arabinoxylans), their role during bread making, and the potential health implications of rye bread consumption. Rye proteins play only a minor role during bread making, but their exact role remains insufficiently explored. In contrast to wheat proteins, they lack the ability to form a network with good gas‐retaining properties. The rye bread crumb structure is partly attributed to its starch and arabinoxylan polysaccharides. Both bind a lot of water, form networks, and bring about the rye bread structure.ConclusionsNevertheless, a better understanding of the role of rye starch, proteins, and arabinoxylans, their interactions, and their impact on dough structure or product quality still needs further exploration. In terms of health effects, EFSA has acknowledged that rye fiber contributes to normal bowel function. There are also indications that rye bread consumption has a number of positive effects such as reducing the risk of colon cancer and hunger feelings and cholesterol‐lowering effects. However, although beneficial health effects of rye‐bread consumption are shown, more research is needed.Significance and noveltyA literature search with the terms “rye” and “review” in Web of Science in April 2020 resulted in only six manuscripts. Therefore, this review summarizes the current knowledge about the major rye constituents (starch, proteins, and arabinoxylans), their role during bread making, and the potential health implications of rye bread consumption.

Steeping and germination of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.). I. Unlocking the impact of phytate and cell wall hydrolysis on bio-accessibility of iron and zinc elements

In a double-blind, randomheed, prospective study 150 women in labour received intermittent epidural injections of 10 mlO.l25% bupivacaine with adrenaline (1 :800000) with 5, 7.5 or 10 pg of sufentanil added. The onset, duration, and quality of analgesia were compared. Motor block, type of delivery and neonatal Apgar scores were noted. The onset, duration, and quality of analgesia were generally similar in the three groups, except following the second injection when the quality of analgesia was signijcantly superior in the sufentanil 7.5 and 10 pg groups. Motor blockade and type of delivery did not difer between the groups and there were no diferences in neonatal Apgar scores. No patient required more than three injections. We conclude that 7.5 pg sufentanil is the optimal dose to add to intermittent epidural injections of 10 mi 0.125% bupivacaine with adrenaline ( 1 : 800 000) for pain relief in labour.

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Iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) in wheat are mainly present as insoluble phytates in the aleurone cells.Phytate breakdown during steeping and germination of wheat enhances their bio-accessibility.However, the accompanying redistribution within the grain and changes in speciation are still unclear. We unravelled these changes using a combination of wheat fractionation by pearling, Xray fluorescence microscopy mapping and X-ray absorption near-edge structure imaging. A significant fraction of Zn and Fe migrates to radicles and coleoptiles during germination. The remainder has low water extractability (≤ 8%). The high water extractability (26-27%) of Zn in the radicle and coleoptile indicates its mobility in the seedling. Zn migrates from the aleurone to the pericarp and embryonic tissues, while Fe is dominantly present in the scutellum tissue attached to the seedling. The co-localisation of Zn and sulfur (S) in the developing embryo suggests that translocated Zn is bound to S-containing peptides. In aleurone cells Fe remains phytate bound and although Zn is phytate and S-bound, slight changes in its speciation occur during germination. This study partially explains the impact of steeping and germination on mineral bio-accessibility and opens possibilities for enhancing nutritional quality during food processing.