The kinetics and the metabolism of Bifidobacterium adolescentis MB 239 growing on galactooligosaccharides (GOS), lactose, galactose, and glucose were investigated. An unstructured unsegregated model for growth in batch cultures was developed, and kinetic parameters were calculated with a recursive algorithm. The growth rate and cellular yield were highest on galactose, followed by lactose and GOS, and were lowest on glucose. Lactate, acetate, and ethanol yields allowed the calculation of carbon fluxes toward fermentation products. Distributions between two-and three-carbon products were similar on all the carbohydrates (55 and 45%, respectively), but ethanol yields were different on glucose, GOS, lactose, and galactose, in decreasing order of production. Based on the stoichiometry of the fructose-6-phosphate shunt and on the carbon distribution among the products, the ATP yield was calculated. The highest yield was obtained on galactose, while the yields were 5, 8, and 25% lower on lactose, GOS, and glucose, respectively. Therefore, a correspondence among ethanol production, low ATP yields, and low biomass production was established, demonstrating that carbohydrate preferences may result from different distributions of carbon fluxes through the fermentative pathway. During the fermentation of a GOS mixture, substrate selectivity based on the degree of polymerization was exhibited, since lactose and the trisaccharide were the first to be consumed, while a delay was observed until longer oligosaccharides were utilized. Throughout the growth on both lactose and GOS, galactose accumulated in the cultural broth, suggesting that ␤(1-4) galactosides can be hydrolyzed before they are taken up.Many nondigestible oligosaccharides, such as fructooligosaccharides, isomaltooligosaccharides, galactooligosaccharides (GOS), and xylooligosaccharides, have been reported to beneficially affect human health. They are defined as prebiotics and are increasingly being used as functional food ingredients (18). ␤-GOS are manufactured from highly concentrated lactose solutions by the action of ␤-galactosidases (␤-Gals) which have transgalactosylation activity. In standardized large-scale production, trisaccharides to hexasaccharides are the main products; hence, commercial GOS occur as mixtures of various degrees of polymerization (DP) and glycosidic linkages and contain large amounts of glucose and unreacted lactose. The linkage between galactose moieties (mainly ␤1-4, ␤1-6, and ␤1-3), the efficiency of transgalactosylation, and the components in the final product depend upon the enzymes and the reaction conditions (3,7,25,30,34,39,41).As demonstrated in several in vitro and in vivo studies (5, 40), GOS resist hydrolysis by human digestive enzymes and are not absorbed on transit through the small intestine; therefore, they are available for fermentation by the colon-resident microflora. The utilization of GOS by the major intestinal bacteria has been investigated (25,34,46). It was shown that ␤1-4-linked oligosaccharides were selectivel...

Near-infrared (NIR) spectroscopy has been developed as a noninvasive tool for the direct, real-time monitoring of glucose, lactic acid, acetic acid, and biomass in liquid cultures of microrganisms of the genera Lactobacillus and Staphylococcus. This was achieved employing a steam-sterilizable optical-fiber probe immersed in the culture (In-line Interactance System). Second-derivative spectra obtained were subjected to partial least-squares (PLS) regression and the results were used to build predictive models for each analyte of interest. Multivariate regression was carried out on two different sets of spectra, namely whole broth minus the spectral subtraction of water, and raw spectra. A comparison of the two models showed that the first cannot be properly applied to real-time monitoring, so this work suggests calibration based on non-difference spectra, demonstrating it to be sufficiently reliable to allow the selective determination of the analytes with satisfactory levels of prediction (standard error of prediction (SEP) < 10%). Direct interfacing of the NIR system to the bioreactor control system allowed the implementation of completely automated monitoring of different cultivation strategies (continuous, repeated batch). The validity of the in-line analyses carried out was found to depend crucially on maintaining constant hydrodynamic conditions of the stirred cultures because both gas flow and stirring speed variations were found to markedly influence the spectral signal.

The application of NIR in-line to monitor and control fermentation processes was investigated. Determination of biomass, glucose, and lactic and acetic acids during fermentations of Staphylococcus xylosus ES13 was performed by an interactance fiber optic probe immersed into the culture broth and connected to a NIR instrument. Partial least squares regression (PLSR) calibration models of second derivative NIR spectra in the 700-1800 nm region gave satisfactory predictive models for all parameters of interest: biomass, glucose, and lactic and acetic acids. Batch, repeated batch, and continuous fermentations were monitored and automatically controlled by interfacing the NIR to the bioreactor control unit. The high frequency of data collection permitted an accurate study of the kinetics, supplying lots of data that describe the cultural broth composition and strengthen statistical analysis. Comparison of spectra collected throughout fermentation runs of S. xylosus ES13, Lactobacillus fermentum ES15, and Streptococcus thermophylus ES17 demonstrated the successful extension of a unique calibration model, developed for S. xylosus ES13, to other strains that were differently shaped but growing in the same medium and fermentation conditions. NIR in-line was so versatile as to measure several biochemical parameters of different bacteria by means of slightly adapted models, avoiding a separate calibration for each strain.

Molluscan shellfish aquaculture is considered a “green” industry because of the limited presence of chemicals and risk of pathogens during farming in licensed areas, which provide a safe, nutritive and healthy food source. Moreover, the environmental impact of their production is lower than all other fish animal per unit of protein. In particular, mussels’ production was the first organized mollusk aquaculture in Europe and is now one of the most extended. Italy is the second main European producer of mussels. Taking into account the relevance of the sector, Italian Mediterranean mussel (Mytilus galloprovincialis) aquaculture has been considered for a life cycle assessment (LCA), from a cradle-to-gate perspective. The mussel farms were located in the northern Adriatic Sea, close to the Po River Delta, a region traditionally vocated to bivalve aquaculture. Results have shown that the growing and harvesting phases are the most critical life cycle stages (“hotspots”) due to the production and use of boats, and the great quantity of non-recyclable high-density polyethylene (HDPE) socks used during the yearly productive cycle. Several improvement potentials have been identified and estimated by means of a sensitivity analysis. Furthermore, regarding the principal exporting countries to Italy (Spain and Chile), the transport factors in an overall sustainability assessment have been considered, in order to compare the local and global mussels supply chain.

The utilization of mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides by Bifidobacterium adolescentis MB 239 was investigated. Raffinose, fructooligosaccharides (FOS), lactose, and the monomeric moieties glucose and fructose were used. To establish a hierarchy of sugars preference, the kinetics of growth and sugar consumption were determined on individual and mixed carbohydrates. On single carbon sources, higher specific growth rates and cell yields were attained on di- and oligosaccharides compared to monosaccharides. Analysis of the carbohydrates in steady-state chemostat cultures, growing at the same dilution rate on FOS, lactose, or raffinose, showed that monomeric units and hydrolysis products were present. In chemostat cultures on individual carbohydrates, B. adolescentis MB 239 simultaneously displayed alpha-galactosidase, beta-galactosidase, and beta-fructofuranosidase activities on all the sugars, including monosaccharides. Glycosyl hydrolytic activities were found in cytosol, cell surface, and growth medium. Batch experiments on mixtures of carbohydrates showed that they were co-metabolized by B. adolescentis MB 239, even if different disappearance kinetics were registered. When mono-, di-, and oligosaccharides were simultaneously present in the medium, no precedence for monosaccharides utilization was observed, and di- and oligosaccharides were consumed before their constitutive moieties.

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Bivalves aquaculture is already considered a very sustainable for of food production and might become an essential pillar on which to develop future global food security. However, with the increase in production, a correspondingly great amount of waste will be produced all around the earth, principally in the form of shells, which can represent up to 90% of the fresh mollusk weight. Nowadays, shell waste has no notable use and is commonly regarded as waste, often dumped in landfill, or thrown back into the sea, causing a significant level of environmental concern, and resulting in a loss of natural and valuable resources. Bivalve shells are mainly formed by CaCO3, giving them the potential to become a promising secondary raw material for several applications, from a circular economy perspective. This paper aims to review the scientific literature of the last twenty years and the principal recent trends in shell waste reuse, describing applications that are already in place on a large scale in agriculture and livestock, soils, water and wastewater remediation, biodiesel production and biofilters, as well as niche applications that now simply have the potential to be scaled up.

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