This paper discusses the principles and mechanisms of language attrition in a group of Russian immigrant children in the United States. The discussions and analyses in the study are carried out within the theoretical framework provided by the Matrix Language Frame (MLF) model and its two submodels: the 4-M model and the Abstract Level model. The data are analyzed for the presence of bilingual production, such as codeswitching (CS), convergence, and bare forms. Because different types of morphemes become salient at different levels of the abstract lexical structure, some are less accessible and therefore more vulnerable as language attrition progresses. A structural definition of convergence based on the interaction of the abstract lexical structures of the languages participating in the bilingual speech is developed. The analysis shows that bare forms are produced as a result of both CS and convergence in the abstract structure. Bare forms represent an intermediate stage of language loss, preceded by integrated CS forms and followed by convergence. Overt CS is defined as the presence of morphemes from two varieties; these may be nontarget forms, including bare forms. Overt CS alone is found not to be indicative of language attrition since it does not, by it self, lead to the projection of parts of the abstract structure of the Embedded Language onto the grammatical frame of the Matrix Language (ML). Covert CS (convergence) may occur alone or along with overt CS (nontarget forms, including bare forms). Covert CS is, indeed, an indicator of language attrition in progress since it is a result of a composite Matrix Language.

This study provides an account for a long-term selective loss of L1 (Russian) morpho-syntactic and content components in early immigrants to the U.S. The analysis of naturally occurring data is carried out from the perspective of two theoretical approaches – three models developed within language contact (Myers-Scotton 2002, 2005) and the Activation Threshold hypothesis as a component of a neurolinguistic approach to bilingualism (Paradis, 2004, 2007). The results show that the language contact approach is useful in identifying morpheme types that are most vulnerable to attrition. The second approach helps explain the differential rate of loss of content morphemes in a variety of topics and account for variability in the rate of attrition of late system morphemes through frequency factors. The study demonstrates that by crossing the boundaries of one theory and one view of language researchers can achieve a stronger explanatory power and identify the common and complementary features that both models provide.

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Abstract The roles of central nervous mechanisms and cortical output in obstructive sleep apnoea remain unclear. We addressed corticomuscular coupling between cortical sensorimotor areas and lower facial motor units as a mechanistic pathway and as a possible surrogate marker of corticoperipheral motor control in obstructive sleep apnoea. In this exploratory cross-sectional retrospective study, we analysed EEG (C3 and C4 leads) and chin EMG from polysomnography recordings in 86 participants (22 females; age range: 26–81 years): 27 with mild (respiratory disturbance index = 5–15 events/h), 21 with moderate (15–30 events/h) and 23 with severe obstructive sleep apnoea (>30 events/h) and 15 control subjects (<5 events/h). By computing C3-/C4-EEG–chin EMG coherence of signal dynamics in time and frequency domains, we investigated corticomuscular coupling between cortical sensorimotor areas and lower facial motor units with increasing obstructive sleep apnoea severity during the entire sleeping time, during different sleep stages and during obstructive respiratory events, including 5 s before (stable breathing) and after events (breathing resumption). In addition, we studied a possible influence of body mass index and autonomic nervous system activation. We found that both average and respiratory event-specific corticomuscular coupling between cortical sensorimotor areas and lower facial motor units weakened significantly with increasing obstructive sleep apnoea severity, was strongest during N3 and weakened in N1, N2 and rapid eye movement stages (in decreasing order). Coupling increases significantly during the obstructive respiratory events compared with coupling just before and following them. Results were independent of body mass index or autonomic nervous system activation. We conclude that obstructive respiratory events in obstructive sleep apnoea are very strongly associated both quantitatively and temporally with the degree of disconnection within the cortical sensorimotor areas—lower facial motor units pathway. This quite coordinated activity pattern suggests a cortical sensorimotor area-driven obstructive respiratory event pattern generator and a central motor output disorder in obstructive sleep apnoea.