Plasmalogens are glycerophospholipids with a hallmark sn-1 vinyl ether bond. These lipids are found in animals and some bacteria and have proposed membrane organization, signaling, and antioxidant roles. We discovered the plasmanylethanolamine desaturase activity that is essential for vinyl ether bond formation in a bacterial enzyme, CarF, which is a homolog of the human enzyme TMEM189. CarF mediates light-induced carotenogenesis in Myxococcus xanthus, and plasmalogens participate in sensing photooxidative stress through singlet oxygen. TMEM189 and other animal homologs could functionally replace CarF in M. xanthus, and knockout of TMEM189 in a human cell line eliminated plasmalogens. Discovery of the human plasmanylethanolamine desaturase will spur further study of plasmalogen biogenesis, functions, and roles in disease.

Expression of CRISPR-Cas systems is a prerequisite for their defensive role against invading genetic elements. Yet, much remains unknown about how this crucial step is regulated. We describe a new mechanism controlling CRISPR-cas expression, which requires an extracytoplasmic function (ECF) σ factor (DdvS), its membrane-bound anti-σ (DdvA) and a global regulatory complex (CarD–CarG). Transcriptomic analyses revealed that the DdvS/CarD/CarG-dependent regulon comprises a type III-B CRISPR-Cas system in Myxococcus xanthus. We mapped four DdvS-driven CarD/CarG-dependent promoters, with one lying immediately upstream of the cas cluster. Consistent with direct action, DdvS and CarD–CarG localize at these promoters in vivo. The cas genes are transcribed as a polycistronic mRNA that reads through the leader into the CRISPR array, a putative σA-dependent promoter in the leader having negligible activity in vivo. Consequently, expression of the entire CRISPR-Cas system and mature CRISPR-RNA (crRNA) production is DdvS/CarD/CarG-dependent. DdvA likely uses its large C-terminal domain to sense and transduce the extracytoplasmic signal triggering CRISPR-cas expression, which we show is not starvation-induced multicellular development. An ECF-σ/anti-σ pair and a global regulatory complex provide an effective mechanism to coordinate signal-sensing with production of precursor crRNA, its processing Cas6 endoribonuclease and other Cas proteins for mature crRNA biogenesis and interference.

Myxobacteria are Gram-negative δ-proteobacteria found predominantly in terrestrial habitats and often brightly colored due to the biosynthesis of carotenoids. Carotenoids are lipophilic isoprenoid pigments that protect cells from damage and death by quenching highly reactive and toxic oxidative species, like singlet oxygen, generated upon growth under light. The model myxobacterium Myxococcus xanthus turns from yellow in the dark to red upon exposure to light because of the photoinduction of carotenoid biosynthesis. How light is sensed and transduced to bring about regulated carotenogenesis in order to combat photooxidative stress has been extensively investigated in M. xanthus using genetic, biochemical and high-resolution structural methods. These studies have unearthed new paradigms in bacterial light sensing, signal transduction and gene regulation, and have led to the discovery of prototypical members of widely distributed protein families with novel functions. Major advances have been made over the last decade in elucidating the molecular mechanisms underlying the light-dependent signaling and regulation of the transcriptional response leading to carotenogenesis in M. xanthus. This review aims to provide an up-to-date overview of these findings and their significance.

Plasmalogens are glycerophospholipids with a hallmark sn-1 vinyl ether bond that endows them with unique physical-chemical properties. They have proposed biological roles in membrane organization, fluidity, signaling, and antioxidative functions, and abnormal plasmalogen levels correlate with various human pathologies, including cancer and Alzheimer’s disease. The presence of plasmalogens in animals and in anaerobic bacteria, but not in plants and fungi, is well-documented. However, their occurrence in the obligately aerobic myxobacteria, exceptional among aerobic bacteria, is often overlooked. Tellingly, discovery of the key desaturase indispensable for vinyl ether bond formation, and therefore fundamental in plasmalogen biogenesis, emerged from delving into how the soil myxobacterium Myxococcus xanthus responds to light. A recent pioneering study unmasked myxobacterial CarF and its human ortholog TMEM189 as the long-sought plasmanylethanolamine desaturase (PEDS1), thus opening a crucial door to study plasmalogen biogenesis, functions, and roles in disease. The findings demonstrated the broad evolutionary sweep of the enzyme and also firmly established a specific signaling role for plasmalogens in a photooxidative stress response. Here, we will recount our take on this fascinating story and its implications, and review the current state of knowledge on plasmalogens, their biosynthesis and functions in the aerobic myxobacteria.