BackgroundOver the past fifteen years, we have demonstrated that cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) have opposite effects on the regulation of protein kinase C (PKC) activity in the context of the immune system. The anti-glucocorticoid effect of DHEA is also related to the regulation of splicing of the glucocorticoid receptor (GR), promoting the expression of GRβ isoform, which acts as a negative dominant form on GRα activity. Moreover, it is very well known that DHEA can be metabolized to androgens like testosterone, dihydrotestosterone (DHT), and its metabolites 3α-diol and 3β-diol, which exert their function through the binding of the androgen receptor (AR). Based on this knowledge, and on early observation that castrated animals show results similar to those observed in old animals, the purpose of this study is to investigate the role of androgens and the androgen receptor (AR) in DHEA-induced expression of the PKC signaling molecule RACK1 (Receptor for Activated C Kinase 1) and cytokine production in monocytes.ResultsHere we demonstrated the ability of the anti-androgen molecule, flutamide, to counteract the stimulatory effects of DHEA on RACK1 and GRβ expression, and cytokine production. In both THP-1 cells and human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC), flutamide blocked the effects of DHEA, suggesting a role of the AR in these effects. As DHEA is not considered a direct AR agonist, we investigated the metabolism of DHEA in THP-1 cells. We evaluated the ability of testosterone, DHT, and androstenedione to induce RACK1 expression and cytokine production. In analogy to DHEA, an increase in RACK1 expression and in LPS-induced IL–8 and TNF–α production was observed after treatment with these selected androgens. Finally, the silencing of AR with siRNA completely prevented DHEA-induced RACK1 mRNA expression, supporting the idea that AR is involved in DHEA effects.ConclusionsWe demonstrated that the conversion of DHEA to active androgens, which act via AR, is a key mechanism in the effect of DHEA on RACK1 expression and monocyte activation. This data supports the existence of a complex hormonal balance in the control of immune modulation, which can be further studied in the context of immunosenescence and endocrinosenescence.

Hypersensitivity drug reactions (HDRs) are the adverse effect of pharmaceuticals that clinically resemble allergy. HDRs account for approximately 1/6 of drug-induced adverse effects, and include immune-mediated (“allergic”) and non-immune-mediated (“pseudo allergic”) reactions. In recent years, the severe and unpredicted drug adverse events clearly indicate that the immune system can be a critical target of drugs. Enhanced prediction in preclinical safety evaluation is, therefore, crucial. Nowadays, there are no validated in vitro or in vivo methods to screen the sensitizing potential of drugs in the pre-clinical phase. The problem of non-predictability of immunologically-based hypersensitivity reactions is related to the lack of appropriate experimental models rather than to the lack of -understanding of the adverse phenomenon. We recently established experimental conditions and markers to correctly identify drug associated with in vivo hypersensitivity reactions using THP-1 cells and IL-8 production, CD86 and CD54 expression. The proposed in vitro method benefits from a rationalistic approach with the idea that allergenic drugs share with chemical allergens common mechanisms of cell activation. This assay can be easily incorporated into drug development for hazard identification of drugs, which may have the potential to cause in vivo hypersensitivity reactions. The purpose of this review is to assess the state of the art of in vitro models to assess the allergenic potential of drugs based on the activation of dendritic cells.

Keratinocytes (KCs) play a key role in all phases of skin sensitization. We recently identified interleukin-18 (IL-18) production as useful end point for determination of contact sensitization potential of low molecular weight chemicals. The aim of this study was to identify genes involved in skin sensitizer-induced inflammasome activation and to establish their role in IL-18 production. For gene expression analysis, cells were treated for 6 h with p-phenylenediamine (PPD) as reference contact allergen; total RNA was extracted and examined with a commercially available Inflammasome Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR) array. Among genes induced, NLRP12 (Nod-like receptor P12) was selected for further investigation. NLRP12 promoter region contains Blimp-1 (B-lymphocyte-induced maturation protein-1)/PRDM1 binding site, and from the literature, it is reported that Blimp-1 reduces NLRP12 activity and expression in monocytes/macrophages. Their expression and role in KCs are currently unknown. To confirm NLRP12 expression and to investigate its relationship with Blimp-1, cells were exposed for different times (3, 6 and 24 h) to the extreme sensitizer 2,4-dinitrochlorobenzene (DNCB) and the strong sensitizer PPD. Allergens were able to induce both genes, however, with different kinetic, with DNCB more rapidly upregulating Blimp-1 and inducing IL-18 production, compared to PPD. NLRP12 and Blimp-1 expression appeared to be inversely correlated: Blimp-1 silencing resulted in increased NLRP12 expression and reduced contact allergen-induced IL-18 production. Overall results indicate that contact allergens of different potency differently modulate Blimp-1/NLRP12 expression, with strong allergen more rapidly downregulating NLRP12, thus more rapidly inducing IL-18 production. Data confirm that also in KCs, NLRP12 has an inhibitory effect on inflammasome activation assessed by IL-18 maturation.

Receptor for Activated C Kinase 1 (RACK1) pseudosubstrate is a commercially available peptide that directly activates protein kinase C-β (PKCβ). We have recently shown that RACK1 pseudosubstrate, alone or in combination with classical immune activators, results in increased cytokine production and CD86 upregulation in primary leukocytes. Furthermore, we demonstrated a role of PKCβ and RACK1 in chemical allergen-induced CD86 expression and IL-8 production in both THP-1 cells and primary human dendritic cells. Aim of this study was to shed light on the mechanisms underlying RACK1 pseudosubstrate-induced immune activation and to compare it to lipopolysaccharide (LPS). The human promyelocytic cell line THP-1 was used throughout the study. RACK1 pseudosubstrate induced rapid (5 min) and dose-related PKCβ activation as assessed by its membrane translocation. Among the proteins phosphorylated, we identified Hsp27. Both RACK1 pseudosubstrate and LPS induce its phosphorylation and release in culture medium. The release of Hsp27 induced by RACK1 pseudosubstrate was also confirmed in peripheral blood mononuclear cells. To evaluate the role of Hsp27 in RACK1 pseudosubstrate or LPS-induced cell activation, we conducted Hsp27 silencing and neutralization experiments. Both strategies confirmed the central role of Hsp27 in RACK1 pseudosubstrate or LPS-induced cell activation, as assessed by IL-8 production and upregulation of CD86.