There is considerable evidence that circadian rhythms in mammals can be modulated by emotional state, but how emotional state modulates specific circadian outputs is poorly understood. We analyzed the expression of the circadian clock protein Period2 (PER2) in three regions of the limbic forebrain known to play key roles in emotional regulation, the central nucleus of the amygdala (CEA), the basolateral amygdala (BLA), and the dentate gyrus (DG). We report here that cells in all three regions exhibit daily rhythms in expression of PER2 that are under the control of the master clock, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN). The rhythm in the CEA and the rhythms in the BLA and DG are diametrically opposite in phase and are differentially affected by adrenalectomy. Adrenalectomy completely abolished the PER2 rhythm in the CEA but had no effect on the PER2 rhythms in the BLA and DG. We previously reported a rhythm in PER2 expression in the oval nucleus of the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis that is identical in phase and sensitivity to adrenalectomy to that found in the CEA. Together, these findings show that key structures of the limbic forebrain exhibit daily oscillations in clock gene expression that are controlled not only by input from the SCN but, importantly, by hormonal and neurochemical changes that normally accompany motivational and emotional states. Thus, cells within these areas are strategically positioned to integrate the inputs from the SCN and emotional states to modulate circadian rhythms downstream from the SCN clock.hippocampus ͉ suprachiasmatic nucleus ͉ oval nucleus ͉ circadian clock I n mammals, the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN) of the hypothalamus is recognized as a master clock responsible for the regulation of all behavioral and physiological circadian rhythms (1). The rhythm of the SCN, although sensitive to the daily cycle of light, is relatively invulnerable to environmental challenges and changes in physiology (2, 3). Yet it is recognized that stressors and changes in emotional states can have disruptive effects on behavioral and physiological rhythms (4-8). Furthermore, disruptions of circadian rhythms have negative effects on mood and well being, as observed during jet lag or shift work (9, 10).Although the SCN is the only clock structure required for the generation of circadian rhythmicity, recent studies show that circadian rhythms in expression of clock genes, such as Per1 and Per2, can be found in other brain regions that participate in the control of specific behavioral and physiological outputs. These include, but are not limited to, the striatum, paraventricular hypothalamic nucleus, arcuate nucleus, preoptic area, and olfactory bulbs (11-17). The study of clock genes in these and other functionally defined brain regions may help to determine how the SCN clock controls specific circadian rhythms and, importantly, may contribute to an understanding of how diverse experiences and pathological conditions can affect circadian rhythms downstream from the SCN clock.We found recently th...

Ghrelin, an orexigenic hormone produced by the stomach, is secreted in anticipation of scheduled meals and in correlation with anticipatory locomotor activity. We hypothesized that ghrelin is directly implicated in stimulating locomotor activity in anticipation of scheduled meals. To test this hypothesis, we observed 24 hr patterns of locomotor activity in mice with targeted mutations of the ghrelin receptor gene (GHSR KO) and wild-type littermates, all given access to food for four hours daily for 14 days. While WT and GHSR KO mice produced increases in anticipatory locomotor activity, anticipatory locomotor activity in GHSR KO mice was attenuated (p.< 0.05). These behavioral measures correlated with attenuated levels of Fos immunoreactivity in a number of hypothalamic nuclei from GHSR KO placed on the same restricted feeding schedule for seven days and sacrificed at ZT4. Interestingly, seven daily intraperitoeneal ghrelin injections mimicked hypothalamic Fos expression patterns to those seen in mice under restricted feeding schedules. These data suggest that ghrelin acts in the hypothalamus to augment locomotor activity in anticipation of scheduled meals.

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Circadian oscillators have been observed throughout the rodent brain. In the human brain, rhythmic expression of clock genes has been reported only in the pineal gland, and little is known about their expression in other regions. The investigators sought to determine whether clock gene expression could be detected and whether it varies as a function of time of day in the bed nucleus of the stria terminalis (BNST) and cingulate cortex, areas known to be involved in decision making and motivated behaviors, as well as in the pineal gland, in the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients and aged controls. Relative expression levels of PERIOD1 (PER1 ), PERIOD2 (PER2), and Brain and muscle Arnt-like protein-1 (BMAL1) were detected by quantitative PCR in all 3 brain regions. A harmonic regression model revealed significant 24-h rhythms of PER1 in the BNST of AD subjects. A significant rhythm of PER2 was found in the cingulate cortex and BNST of control subjects and in all 3 regions of AD patients. In controls, BMAL1 did not show a diurnal rhythm in the cingulate cortex but significantly varied with time of death in the pineal and BNST and in all 3 regions for AD patients. Notable differences in the phase of clock gene rhythms and phase relationships between genes and regions were observed in the brains of AD compared to those of controls. These results indicate the presence of multiple circadian oscillators in the human brain and suggest altered synchronization among these oscillators in the brain of AD patients.

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