We evaluated a trial-based approach to conducting functional analyses in classroom settings. Ten students referred for problem behavior were exposed to a series of assessment trials, which were interspersed among classroom activities throughout the day. Results of these trial-based functional analyses were compared to those of more traditional functional analyses. Outcomes of both assessments showed correspondence in 6 of the 10 cases and partial correspondence in a 7th case. Results of the standard functional analysis suggested reasons for obtained differences in 2 cases of noncorrespondence, which were verified when portions of the trial-based functional analyses were modified and repeated. These results indicate that a trial-based functional analysis may be a viable assessment method when resources needed to conduct a standard functional analysis are unavailable. Implications for classroom-based assessment methodologies and future directions for research are discussed.

Functional analysis methodology is a powerful assessment tool for identifying contingencies that maintain a wide range of behavior disorders and for developing effective treatment programs. Nevertheless, concerns have been raised about the feasibility of conducting functional analyses in typical service settings. In this study, we examined the issue of skill acquisition in implementing functional analyses by evaluating an instructional program designed to establish a basic set of competencies. Eleven undergraduate students enrolled in a laboratory course in applied behavior analysis served as participants. Their performance was assessed during scripted simulations in which they played the roles of ''therapists'' who conducted functional analyses and trained graduate students played the roles of ''clients'' who emitted self-injurious and destructive behaviors. To approximate conditions under which an individual might conduct an assessment with limited prior training, participants read a brief set of materials prior to conducting baseline sessions. A multiple baseline design was used to assess the effects of training, which consisted of reading additional materials, watching a videotaped simulation demonstrating correct procedural implementation, passing a written quiz, and receiving feedback on performance during sessions. Results showed that participants scored a relatively high percentage of correct therapist responses during baseline, and that all achieved an accuracy level of 95% or higher following training that lasted about 2 hr. These results suggest that basic skills for conducting functional analyses can be acquired quickly by individuals who have relatively little clinical experience.DESCRIPTORS: assessment, functional analysis, staff training Assessment procedures that identify the functional characteristics of behavior are powerful tools for identifying sources of reinforcement that maintain behavior disorders and for developing subsequent treatment programs. In addition to having generated a great deal of interest in the research literature (e.g., see special issue of the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, Vol. 27, No. 2, 1994), these approaches to assessment have been mandated in recent court decisions and legislation on behalf of persons with developmental disabilities who have severe behav-

Identification of reinforcers for individuals with developmental disabilities is often based on the outcome of preference assessments in which participants make selections from among a variety of items. We determined the extent to which individuals might show a general preference for food items over leisure items during such assessments and whether leisure items that are "displaced" by food items might nevertheless function as reinforcers. Arrays consisting of food items only and then nonfood items only were presented separately to 14 participants and then were ranked to determined preference. The top selections from these initial assessments were subsequently combined in a third assessment, and preferences were again established. All but 2 participants showed a general preference for food items, such that selection of nonfood items in the combined arrays was displaced downward relative to selection of nonfood in the nonfood-only arrays. Two of the participants were exposed to a condition in which a nonfood item was delivered contingent on the occurrence of an adaptive response, and increased rates of responding by both individuals were observed. Results are discussed in terms of limitations posed by using only food items as reinforcers and the resulting need to take precautionary measures when attempting to identify nonfood reinforcers.

A common finding in previous research is that problem behavior maintained by automatic reinforcement continues to occur in the alone condition of a functional analysis (FA), whereas behavior maintained by social reinforcement typically is extinguished. Thus, the alone condition may represent an efficient screening procedure when maintenance by automatic reinforcement is suspected. We conducted a series of 5-min alone (or no-interaction) probes for 30 cases of problem behavior and compared initial predictions of maintenance or extinction to outcomes obtained in subsequent FAs. Results indicated that data from the screening procedure accurately predicted that problem behavior was maintained by automatic reinforcement in 21 of 22 cases and by social reinforcement in 7 of 8 cases. Thus, results of the screening accurately predicted the function of problem behavior (social vs. automatic reinforcement) in 28 of 30 cases.

The Functional Analysis Screening Tool (FAST) is a 16-item questionnaire about antecedent and consequent events that might be correlated with the occurrence of problem behavior. Items are organized into 4 functional categories based on contingencies that maintain problem behavior. We assessed interrater reliability of the FAST with 196 problem behaviors through independent administration to pairs of raters (Study 1). Mean item-by-item agreement between pairs of raters was 71.5%. Agreement for individual items ranged from 53.3% to 84.5%. Agreement on FAST outcomes, based on comparison of informants' highest totals, was 64.8%. We assessed the validity of the FAST by comparing its outcomes with results of 69 functional analyses (Study 2). The FAST score predicted the condition of the functional analysis in which the highest rate of problem behavior occurred in 44 cases (63.8%). Potential uses of the FAST in the context of a clinical interview, as well as limitations, are discussed.

We compared results obtained in two previous studies on reinforcer identification (Fisher et al., 1992; Pace, Ivancic, Edwards, Iwata, & Page, 1985) by combining methodologies from both studies. Eight individuals with mental retardation participated. During Phase 1, two preference assessments were conducted, one in which stimuli were presented singly (SS method) and one in which stimuli were presented in pairs (PS method). Based on these results, two types of stimuli were identified for each participant: High-preference (HP) stimuli were those selected on 75% or more trials during both preference assessments; low-preference (LP) stimuli were those selected on 100% of the SS trials but on 25% or fewer of the PS trials. During Phase 2, the reinforcing effects of HP and LP stimuli were evaluated in reversal designs under two test conditions: concurrent and single schedules of continuous reinforcement. Two response options were available under the concurrent-schedule condition: One response produced access to the HP stimulus; the other produced access to the LP stimulus. Only one response option was available under the single-schedule condition, and that response produced access only to the LP stimulus. Results indicated that 7 of the 8 participants consistently showed preference for the HP stimulus under the concurrent schedule. However, when only the LP stimulus was available during the single-schedule condition, response rates for 6 of the 7 participants were as high as those observed for the HP stimulus during the concurrent-schedule condition (1 participant showed no reinforcement effect). These results indicate that, although the concurrent-schedule procedure is well suited to the assessment of relative reinforcement effects (preference for one reinforcer over another), absolute reinforcement effects associated with a given stimulus may be best examined under single-schedule conditions.

Results of longitudinal studies suggest that the stability of preferences varies across individuals, although it is unclear what variables account for these differences. We extended this work by conducting periodic assessments of preference for leisure activities over 3 to 6 months with 10 adults with developmental disabilities. Although previous research has collectively shown that preferences identified via repeated assessment are highly variable, our results showed that preferences were relatively stable for the majority (80%) of participants. In an attempt to identify some environmental determinants of shifts in preference, we provided extended daily access to high-preference items (preference-weakening manipulation) and paired access to low-preference items with social and edible putative reinforcers during brief sessions (preference-strengthening manipulation). Preference assessments continued over the course of these manipulations with 2 participants. Results showed that changes in preference across time could be produced systematically and suggest that naturally occurring changes in establishing operations or conditioning histories contribute to temporal shifts in preference. Implications for preference assessments, reinforcer usage, and planned attempts to change preferences are discussed.

In the current study, momentary time sampling (MTS) and partial-interval recording (PIR) were compared to continuous-duration recording of stereotypy and to the frequency of self-injury during a treatment analysis to determine whether the recording method affected data interpretation. Five previously conducted treatment analysis data sets were analyzed by creating separate graphic displays for each measurement method (duration or frequency, MTS, and PIR). An expert panel interview and structured criterion visual inspection were used to evaluate treatment effects across measurement methods. Results showed that treatment analysis interpretations based on both discontinuous recording methods often matched those based on frequency or duration recording; however, interpretations based on MTS were slightly more likely to match those based on duration and those based on PIR were slightly more likely to match those based on frequency.