Coagulation models assume a higher sticking threshold for micrometer-sized ice particles than for micrometer-sized silicate particles. However, in contrast to silicates, laboratory investigations of the collision properties of micrometer-sized ice particles (in particular, of the most abundant water ice) have not been conducted yet. Thus, we used two different experimental methods to produce micrometer-sized water ice particles, i. e. by spraying water droplets into liquid nitrogen and by spraying water droplets into a cold nitrogen atmosphere. The mean particle radii of the ice particles produced with these experimental methods are (1.49 ± 0.79) µm and (1.45 ± 0.65) µm. Ice aggregates composed of the micrometer-sized ice particles are highly porous (volume filling factor: φ = 0.11 ± 0.01) or rather compact (volume filling factor: φ = 0.72 ± 0.04), depending on the method of production. Furthermore, the critical rolling friction force of F Roll,ice = (114.8 ± 23.8) × 10 −10 N was measured for micrometer-sized ice particles, which exceeds the critical rolling friction force of micrometer-sized SiO 2 particles (F Roll,S iO 2 = (12.1 ± 3.6) × 10 −10 N). This result implies that the adhesive bonding between micrometer-sized ice particles is stronger than the bonding strength between SiO 2 particles. An estimation of the specific surface energy of micrometer-sized ice particles, derived from the measured critical rolling friction forces and the surface energy of micrometer-sized SiO 2 particles, results in γ ice = 0.190 J m −2 .

Collisions between centimeter-to decimeter-sized dusty bodies are important to understand the mechanisms leading to the formation of planetesimals. We thus performed laboratory experiments to study the collisional behavior of dust aggregates in this size range at velocities below and around the fragmentation threshold. We developed two independent experimental setups with the same goal to study the effects of bouncing, fragmentation, and mass transfer in free particle-particle collisions. The first setup is an evacuated drop tower with a free-fall height of 1.5 m, providing us with 0.56 s of microgravity time so that we observed collisions with velocities between 8 mm s −1 and 2 m s −1 . The second setup is designed to study the effect of partial fragmentation (when only one of the two aggregates is destroyed) and mass transfer in more detail. It allows for the measurement of the accretion efficiency as the samples are safely recovered after the encounter. Our results are that for very low velocities we found bouncing as could be expected while the fragmentation velocity of 20 cm s −1 was significantly lower than expected. We present the critical energy for disruptive collisions Q , which showed up to be at least two orders of magnitude lower than previous experiments in the literature. In the wide range between bouncing and disruptive collisions, only one of the samples fragmented in the encounter while the other gained mass. The accretion efficiency in the order of a few percent of the particle's mass is depending on the impact velocity and the sample porosity. Our results will have consequences for dust evolution models in protoplanetary disks as well as for the strength of large, porous planetesimal bodies.

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Most meteorites are fragments from recent collisions experienced in the asteroid belt. In such a hyper-velocity collision, the smaller collision partner is destroyed, whereas a crater on the asteroid is formed or it is entirely disrupted, too. The present size distribution of the asteroid belt suggests that an asteroid with 100 km radius is encountered 10 14 times during the lifetime of the Solar System by objects larger than 10 cm in radius; the formed craters cover the surface of the asteroid about 100 times. We present a Monte Carlo code that takes into account the statistical bombardment of individual infinitesimally small surface elements, the subsequent compaction of the underlying material, the formation of a crater and a regolith layer. For the entire asteroid, 10,000 individual surface elements are calculated. We compare the ejected material from the calculated craters with the shock stage of meteorites with low petrologic type and find that these most likely stem from smaller parent bodies that do not possess a significant regolith layer. For larger objects, which accrete a regolith layer, a prediction of the thickness depending on the largest visible crater can be made. Additionally, we compare the crater distribution of an object initially 100 km in radius with the shape model of the asteroid (21) Lutetia, assuming it to be initially formed spherical with a radius that is equal to its longest present ellipsoid length. Here, we find the shapes of both objects to show resemblance to each other.

The formation of planetesimals in the early Solar System is hardly understood, and in particular the growth of dust aggregates above millimeter sizes has recently turned out to be a difficult task in our understanding [Zsom et al. 2010, A&A, 513, A57]. Laboratory experiments have shown that dust aggregates of these sizes stick to one another only at unreasonably low velocities. However, in the protoplanetary disk, millimeter-sized particles are known to have been ubiquitous. One can find relics of them in the form of solid chondrules as the main constituent of chondrites. Most of these chondrules were found to feature a fine-grained rim, which is hypothesized to have formed from accreting dust grains in the solar nebula. To study the influence of these dust-coated chondrules on the formation of chondrites and possibly planetesimals, we conducted collision experiments between millimeter-sized, dustcoated chondrule analogs at velocities of a few cm s −1 . For 2 and 3 mm diameter chondrule analogs covered by dusty rims of a volume filling factor of 0.18 and 0.35-0.58, we found sticking velocities of a few cm s −1 . This velocity is higher than the sticking velocity of dust aggregates of the same size. We therefore conclude that chondrules may be an important step towards a deeper understanding of the collisional growth of larger bodies. Moreover, we analyzed the collision behavior in an ensemble of dust aggregates and non-coated chondrule analogs. While neither the dust aggregates nor the solid chondrule analogs show sticking in collisions among their species, we found an enhanced sicking efficiency in collisions between the two constituents, which leads us to the conjecture that chondrules might act as "catalyzers" for the growth of larger bodies in the young Solar System.

We developed an experimental setup to test the hypothesis that accretionary rims around chondrules formed in the solar nebula by accretion of dust on the surfaces of hot chondrules. Our experimental method allows us to form dust rims around chondrule analogs while levitated in an inert-gas flow. We used micrometer-sized powdered San Carlos olivine to accrete individual dust particles onto the chondrule analogs at room temperature (20 • C) and at 1100 • C. The resulting dust rims were analyzed by means of two different techniques: non-destructive micro computer tomography, and scanning electron microscopy. Both methods give very similar results for the dust rim structure and a mean dust rim porosity of 60 percent for the hot coated samples, demonstrating that both methods are equally well suited for sample analysis. The chondrule analog's bulk composition has no measurable impact on the accretion efficiency of the dust. We measured the chemical composition of chondrule analog and dust rim to check whether elemental exchange between the two components occurred. Such a reaction zone was not found; thus, we can experimentally confirm the sharp border between chondrules and dust rims described in the literature. We adopted a simple model to derive the degree of post-accretionary compaction for different carbonaceous chondrites. Moreover, we measured the rim porosity of a fragment of Murchison meteorite, analyzed it with micro-CT and found rim porosities with this technique that are comparable to those described in the literature.

For the purpose of investigating the evolution of dust aggregates in the early Solar System, we developed two vacuum drop towers in which fragile dust aggregates with sizes up to ~10 cm and porosities up to 70% can be collided. One of the drop towers is primarily used for very low impact speeds down to below 0.01 m/sec and makes use of a double release mechanism. Collisions are recorded in stereo-view by two highspeed cameras, which fall along the glass vacuum tube in the center-of-mass frame of the two dust aggregates. The other free-fall tower makes use of an electromagnetic accelerator that is capable of gently accelerating dust aggregates to up to 5 m/sec. In combination with the release of another dust aggregate to free fall, collision speeds up to ~10 m/sec can be achieved. Here, two fixed high-speed cameras record the collision events. In both drop towers, the dust aggregates are in free fall during the collision so that they are weightless and match the conditions in the early Solar System.

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