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Intensive agricultural systems have negative impacts on soil and water quality, and on biodiversity conservation. The evolution of intercropping is controlled by a high degree of biodiversity. In sharp contrast intensive agricultural systems uses monocultures associated with high input of chemical fertilisers and pesticides. Intercropping involves two or more crops in the same fi eld at the same time. Intercropping increases biodiversity, improving the ability of an agricultural system to handle changes in growing conditions. Intercropping plays a pivotal role for increasing land use ef fi ciency, weed suppression, enhanced ecological services and greater economic pro fi tability. Bene fi ts of intercropping include improved yields and yield stability, enhanced use of water and nutrients, increased weed suppression, increased pest and disease resistance, reduced soil erosion and improved forage quality.This review reports the relationships between plants in intercropping to understand and design intercropping systems, with special focus on intercropping ef fi ciency. The most common index showing yield advantage of intercropping is the land equivalent ratio (LER). The LER provides a standardized basis so that crops can be added to form 'combined' yields. The LER indicates competitive effects by comparison of individual LER. LER can measure relative yield advantage. We also present new ways to determine and use the LER.

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